.  xoc>evisoTn 


The  Old  Testament 

anoIts  Contents 


BS  1194  .R57 
Robertson,  James, 
The  Old  Testament 
contents 


1840-1920 
and  its 


vjtulIcI     and     Bible     Cla 
■Te*t    B  c  <or 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 


AND 


ITS   CONTENTS 


THE 


OLD     TESTAMENT 


AND 


ITS   CONTENTS 


BY 


JAMES  :  ROBERTSON,    D.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    ORIENTAL    LANGUAGES    IN    THE    UNIVERSITY 
OF    GLASGOW 

AUTHOR    OF    "THE    EARLY    RELIGION    OF    ISRAEL  " 


NEW    YORK 

ANSON    1).   F.   RANDOLPH    AND    COMPANY 

(incorporated) 
182  Fifth  Avfnue 

LONDON:   ADAM    AND    CHARLES    BLACK 


4 


I 


EDITORIAL   NOTE 

The  Editors  have  great  satisfaction  in  issuing 
this  contribution  to  the  Guild  and  Bible -Class 
series  from  the  pen  of  Professor  Robertson  of  the 
University  of  Glasgow.  The  subject  is  one  of 
special  interest  and  importance  at  the  present 
time,  and  they  believe  the  manual  will  supply  a 
widely-felt  want.  It  will  be  understood,  that  while 
in  general  sympathy  with  the  learned  author's 
leading  views,  neither  the  Editors  nor  the  Com- 
mittee under  whose  auspices  the  book  is  published, 
are  to  be  held  as  committed  to  all  the  critical 
opinions  expressed  in  it. 


PREFACE 

In  the  preparation  of  the  present  text-book,  the 
primary  consideration  has  been  its  utility  as  a  means 
of  instruction.  Opinions  will  differ  as  to  the  relative 
importance  of  the  topics  that  had  to  be  treated, 
and  the  proportion  of  space  that  ought  to  be 
assigned  to  different  branches  of  the  subject.  The 
writer  has  kept  continually  in  view  the  circum- 
stances of  young  people  in  Guilds  and  Bible- 
Classes  ;  and,  according  to  the  best  of  his  judg"- 
ment,  has  given  the  information  they  are  most 
likely  to  desire,  in  such  a  form  as  will  neither 
perplex  nor  mislead  them.  References  to  larger 
works  have  been  purposely  omitted  in  an  element- 
ary handbook.  Teachers  of  classes  and  directors 
of  guilds,  who,  presumably,  know  whither  to  turn 
for  fuller  details,  will  be  able  to  supplement  what 
is  here  stated  in  outline,  and  will  be  guided  by 
the  circumstances  of  their  pupils  in  the  recom- 
mendation of  other  books. 

Though  primarily  intended  for  young  people  in 
classes,  a  book  of  this  limited  compass  may  be 
found  of  some  service  to  others  who  are  not  in  a 


Vlll  OLD    TESTAMENT  AND  ITS   CONTENTS 

position  to  make  use  of  more  elaborate  works.  It 
is  sent  forth  in  the  earnest  hope  that  it  may  pro- 
mote an  intelligent  acquaintance  with  the  Old 
Testament,  and  lead  to  a  deeper  appreciation  of 
its  contents. 

The  writer  desires  to  make  grateful  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  valuable  suggestions  he  has  received 
from  the  general  Editors,  and  also  to  express  his 
deep  obligations  to  the  Rev.  Robert  S.  Kemp, 
B.D.,  minister  of  Insch,  who  has  bestowed  the 
greatest  pains  on  the  correction  of  the  proofs. 


ABBREVIATIONS  EMPLOYED 

R.V.   =   Revised  Version. 
A.V.   =  Authorised  Version. 
MS.,  MSS.    =   Manuscript,  Manuscripts. 
LXX.    =   Septuagint. 

f.  or  ff.  (after  a  number)  =  following  verse  or 
verses. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I.— THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  AS  A 
WHOLE 

CHAP.  PAGE 

I.   Introductory  ......  i 

II.  The    Canonical     Books    of     the    Old 

Testament          .....  3 

III.  Evidences  of  a  completed  Canon         .  7 

IV.  Gradual  Formation  of  the  Canon      .  16 
V.  Transmission  of  the  Canon           .         .  25 


PART  II.— THE  BOOKS  COMPOSING  THE 
OLD  TESTAMENT 

VI.  General  View  of  the  Books 
VII.  The  Pentateuch  as  a  Whole 


VIII 


CH 


The  Books  of  the  Pentateu 

Genesis 

Exodus 

Leviticus 

Numbers 

Deuteronomy 

IX.  Composition  of  the  Pentateuch 

X.  The  Pentateuch  as  a  Part  of  the  Bible 

XI.   The  Historical  Books:  Joshua,  JUDGES, 

Samuel,  and  Kings  .... 


31 
36 
40 
40 
42 
43 
44 
46 
48 
54 

58 


X     OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


CHAP. 

PAGE 

XII. 

The  Book  of 

Joshua  . 

62 

XIII. 

The  Book  of 

Judges  . 

65 

XIV. 

The  Books  of  Samuel 

69 

XV. 

The  Books  of  Kings  . 

75 

XVI. 

The  Prophets       . 

84 

XVII. 

The  Book  of  Isaiah    . 

87 

XVIII. 

The  Book  of  Jeremiah 

92 

XIX. 

The  Book  of  Ezekiel 

97 

XX. 

The  Twelve 

Minor  Prophets    . 

101 

Hosea 

102 

Joel    . 

103 

Amos 

106 

Obadiah 

108 

Jonah 

109 

Micah 

in 

Nahum 

113 

Habakkuk 

114 

Zephaniah 

ue 

Haggai 

"3 

Zechariah 

lie 

Malachi 

12] 

XXI. 

The  Book  o 

f  Psalms 

12^; 

XXII. 

The  Book  o 

f  Proverb 

s 

13' 

XXIII. 

The  Book  o 

f  Job 

13. 

XXIV. 

The  Five  R 

DLLS    . 

*3< 

The  Song  c 

)f  Songs 

*3< 

Ruth  . 

14: 

Lamentatic 

ns 

14: 

Ecclesiaste 

14. 

Esther 

.         i4i 

XXV 

The  Book  c 

f  Daniel 

IS 

XXVI 

The  Books 

of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah 

15. 

XXVII. 

The  Books 

of  O 

^RONl 

CLES  . 

i6< 

THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  AND 
ITS  CONTENTS 

PART    I 

THE   OLD   TESTAMENT  AS   A  WHOLE 

CHAPTER    I 

INTRODUCTORY 

§  i.  The  word  Bible  is  the  equivalent  of  a  Greek 
word  which  properly  means  books.  It  was  applied 
by  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  sometimes  to  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  alone,  just  as  we  find 
the  expression  "  the  books "  employed  in  Daniel 
ix.  2  (R.V.),  to  denote  the  Sacred  Writings  which 
were  then  in  existence  ;  and  sometimes  to  all  the 
books  of  the  Bible.  In  course  of  time,  the  com- 
pleted collection  of  books  forming  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  being  regarded  as  one  whole,  the  word 
Bible  came  to  be  used  as  a  singular  name  for  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  What  the  whole  Bible  is  to  the 
Christian  Church,  the  Old  Testament  is  to  the 
Jews, — the  standard  of  faith  and  the  rule  of  life. 
The  word  Testament  is  the  translation  of  a  word 
which  is  more  frequently  rendered   Covenant,  and 


2      OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

is  applied  to  the  one  part  or  the  other  of  Scripture 
with  reference  to  the  old  and  the  new  dispensa- 
tions to  which  they  respectively  belong. 

§  2.  Before  undertaking  the  study  of  a  book, 
we  naturally  ask  what  the  book  is,  and  whence  it 
has  come.  The  consideration  of  such  questions 
in  regard  to  the  Bible  goes  by  the  name  of  Bible 
Introduction ;  and  since  the  Old  Testament  (as 
well  as  the  New)  is  one  whole  composed  of  many 
parts,  it  is  evident  that  the  inquiry  before  us  is 
twofold.  We  have  to  inquire,  in  the  first  place, 
under  what  circumstances  and  at  what  time  the 
books  were  collected  into  one  whole,  and  by  what 
process  the  completed  collection  has  been  handed 
down  to  our  own  times  ;  and  this  is  called  General 
Introduction.  And,  in  the  second  place,  we  have 
to  look  at  the  individual  books  of  which  the  Old 
Testament  is  made  up,  to  observe  their  contents 
and  character,  and  to  ascertain,  if  possible,  their 
literary  history  ;  which  again  is  called  Particular 
or  Special  Introduction.  The  contents  of  the 
present  handbook  will  accordingly  fall  into  these 
parts  : — 

Part  I.   General  Introduction,  comprising  : — 

i.   The  collection  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Scriptures  (§§  3-15). 
2.   The  transmission  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Scriptures  (§§  16-19). 
Part  II.   Particular    Introduction,    viz.    an    ex- 
amination of  the  individual  books  (§§  20-92). 


THE  CANONICAL  BOOKS 


CHAPTER    II 
THE  CANONICAL  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

§  3.  The  books  of  the  Old  Testament  are,  in 
our  English  Bible,  thirty-nine  in  number  ;  and,  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged,  they  may 
be  thus  classified  : — 

I.  Law,  Genesis  to  Deuteronomy  .      5  books 
II.   History,  Joshua  to  Esther  .12     „ 

III.  Poetry,  Job  to  Song  of  Solomon  .      5      ,,] 

IV.  Prophecy,  Isaiah  to  Malachi       .17     ,, 

39 
They  were  all  originally  written  in  Hebrew, 
with  the  exception  of  some  portions  in  a  few  of 
the  later  books,  which  are  in  a  kindred  dialect, 
Aramaic ;  and  they  have  been  preserved  by  the 
Jewish  people  in  their  sacred  language.  The 
Hebrew  Bible  contains  all  the  books  enumerated 
above,  and  no  more ;  but  there  is  a  difference 
in  the  arrangement  and  in  the  total  number 
of  the  books,  as  exhibited  in  the  table  on  the 
next  page.  The  English  Bible  has  followed  the 
order  of  the  old  versions  (see  §  6) ;  and  a  glance 
at  the  table  will  show  that  the  difference  in  the 


4      OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

total  number  has  arisen  from  a  different  mode 
of  enumeration.  The  Hebrew  Bible  consists 
of  twenty -four  hooks,  so  that  the  Jews  often 
speak  of  it  as  the  "  four  -and  -twenty "  ;  and  the 
whole  is  arranged  in  three  divisions,  thus : — 

I.   Law,  i.e.  the  Pentateuch  or  the 
five  books :  Genesis,  Exodus, 
Leviticus,  Numbers,  Deutero- 
nomy .  .  .  .5  books 
II.  Prophets,  viz.  : — 

1.  Former  prophets:  (a)  Joshua, 

(b)  Judges,  (c)  Samuel,  (d) 
Kings     .  .  .  .   4      „ 

2.  Latter  prophets  :  (a)  Isaiah, 

(b)  Jeremiah,  (c)  Ezekiel, 
(d)  the  twelve  (minor 
prophets)         .  .  .    4      ,, 

III.  Writings,  which  we  usually  desig- 
nate Hagiographa,  i.e.  Sacred 
Writings.  They  are  classed 
thus  : — 

1.  Three  books  {a)  Psalms,  (b) 

Proverbs,  (e)  Job     .  .    3      ,, 

2.  Five  rolls  (a)  Song  of  Songs, 

(b)  Ruth,  (<r)  Lamenta- 
tions, (d)  Ecclesiastes,  (e) 
Esther  .  .  .  .    5      „ 

3.  (a)    Daniel,    (b)    Ezra    and 

Nehemiah,  (c)  the  Chroni- 
cles        .  .  .  .    3      „ 

24 

1.    In  regard  to  the  table  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the 
books  forming  the  division  of  Law  are  partly  historical 


THE  CANONICAL  BOOKS 


in  contents,  that  the  so-called  Former  Prophets  are 
historical,  that  the  book  of  Daniel  is  not  reckoned  among 
the  "Prophets,"  and  that  the  twelve  minor  prophets  are 
reckoned  one  book.  The  five  rolls  are  so  called  because 
it-  was  customary  to  write  each  of  them  on  a  separate 
roll,  for  reading  on  five  special  occasions  (§§  15,  83). 

2.  The  reason  for  enumerating  the  books  in  the  order 
in  which  they  are  arranged  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  will 
appear  presently,  when  we  come  to  consider  the  history 
of  the  Canon. 

§  4.  The  books  that  have  been  enumerated 
constitute  what  is  called  the  Canon  or  canonical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  Greek  word 
Ca?i07i  denoted  originally  a  measuring-rod  or  line. 
From  this  it  came  to  mean  a  standard  or  test  of 
measurement,  and  then  the  space  or  sphere  defined 
or  marked  off  by  such  a  measure.  As  applied  to 
a  collection  of  books,  the  term  would  indicate,  from 
one  point  of  view,  that  the  books  were  the  expres- 
sion, in  a  written  form,  of  the  rule  of  faith  ;  or, 
from  another  point  of  view,  that  the  books  were 
separated  and  marked  off  from  other  books, 
owing  to  their  possessing  special  characteristics. 
In  the  former  sense,  canonical  books  would  be 
distinguished  from  books  of  general  literature  ;  in 
the  latter,  from  books  called  apocryphal.  It  is 
not  till  the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian  era  that 
we  find  the  term  Canon  applied  to  Holy  Scripture  ; 
but  the  mere  fact  that  the  Jews,  from  an  early 
period,  set  apart  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  only  those  books,  is  a  proof  that  they  regarded 
them  with  both  the  ideas  which  the  term  Canon 
suggests.  It  comes  to  be  a  difficult  though  very 
important  matter  to  determine  at  what  time  and 
on  what   grounds   the  collection   of  books    into   a 


6      OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

canon  was  made.  We  cannot  assume  that  the 
thing  was  done  all  at  once,  or  once  for  all,  nor  are 
we  to  suppose  that  the  religious  guides  of  the  Jews 
first  determined  what  a  Canon  should  be,  and  then 
looked  for  books  or  set  about  writing  books,  which 
should  fulfil  the  conditions.  There  are  three  things 
that  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  us  in  considering 
this  subject:  (i)  That  books  must  have  been  in 
existence — and  presumably  for  a  considerable  time 
in  existence — before  they  would  be  collected  into 
an  authoritative  Canon.  (2)  That  the  books  so 
collected  must  have  been  regarded  as  possessing 
special  characteristics  and  claims.  (3)  That  there 
must  have  been  circumstances  in  the  external  or 
internal  history  of  the  Jewish  people  furnishing  an 
occasion  for  the  collection  of  sacred  books  for 
sacred  use. 

1.  The  first  of  these  three  points  is  important,  for  we 
must  distinguish  between  the  time  at  which  a  book  was 
admitted  into  the  Canon  and  the  date  of  its  authorship. 
The  second  point  is  forced  on  our  attention  by  the  exist- 
ence of  the  apocryphal  books  (§  15,  2).  The  third  is 
suggested  by  many  considerations  which  go  to  prove  that 
the  formation  of  the  Canon  was  a  gradual  process. 


EVIDENCES  OF  A   COMPLETED  CANON 


CHAPTER    III 

EVIDENCES  OF  A  COMPLETED  CANON 

§5.  The  manner  in  which  the  "Scriptures"  are 
quoted  or  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament 
leaves  little  room  to  doubt  that,  in  the  time  of  the 
first  writers  of  the  New  Testament,  the  collection 
of  books  now  embraced  in  the  Old  Testament 
Canon  was  well  known  and  of  long  existence. 
From  the  language  employed  by  Christ  and  the 
Apostles  in  their  appeals  to  Scripture,  no  unpre- 
judiced mind  would  conclude  that  the  Canon  of 
the  Old  Testament  was  of  recent  date  or  of 
undefined  compass,  or  that  any  doubt  prevailed  as 
to  the  authority  of  the  books  of  which  it  was  com- 
posed.1 Nearly  every  book  of  the  Old  Testament 
is  quoted  or  referred  to  in  the  New.  Almost  all 
the  quotations  or  references  to  "Scripture"  in 
the  New  Testament  are  unmistakably  found  in 
the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  And, 
although  the  New  Testament  writers  in  all  prob- 
ability were  acquainted  with  other  books  which 
are  not  in  the  Canon,  or  even  referred  to  them  for 
general  purposes,2  there  is  no  evidence  that  they 

1  See  Matt.  xxii.  29;  Acts  xviii.  24;  Rom.  i.  e  ;  2  Tim.  iii.  15. 

2  See,  for  example,  2  Tim.  iii.  8 ;  Jude  14-16. 


8      OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

placed  such  books  on  the  same  level  with  the 
canonical  books  as  authoritative  Scripture.  More- 
over, in  one  passage  (Luke  xxiv.  44),  the  threefold 
division  of  the  Canon  seems  to  be  referred  to  in 
the  words,  "  All  things  must  be  fulfilled,  which 
were  written  in  the  law  of  Moses,  and  in  the 
prophets,  and  in  the  psalms,  concerning  me,"  the 
"  psalms  "  being  mentioned  as  the  first  book  of  the 
third  division.1  All  this  leaves  on  the  mind  the 
impression  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era  there  was  a  collection  of  canonical  books  of 
long  standing  and  of  undisputed  authority  ;  and  as 
the  canonical  collection  which  has  come  down  to 
us  is  known  to  be  the  collection  which  was 
accepted  among  the  Jews  of  Palestine,  the  con- 
clusion to  which  we  are  brought  is  that  the  exist- 
ing Canon  was  by  that  time  a  thing  of  high 
antiquity. 

1.  There  are,  indeed,  a  few  passages  in  the  New 
Testament  containing  references  to  Scripture  which, 
taken  verbally,  are  not  precisely  found  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment books.  See,  e.g.,  Matt,  xxvii.  9;  Luke  xi.  49; 
John  vii.  38  ;  I  Cor.  ii.  9  ;  Eph.  v.  14.  These  are 
variously  explained  by  commentators  ;  but  it  is  certainly 
unwarrantable  to  conclude,  as  some  have  done,  that  they 
must  be  quotations  from  apocryphal  books  which  were 
recognised  as  "  Scripture  "  in  the  same  sense  as  canonical 
writings. 

2.  The  only  Old  Testament  books  which  are  neither 
quoted  nor  referred  to  in  the  New  are  Obadiah  and 
Nahum  of  the  minor  prophets  ;  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  ; 
Esther,  Song  of  Songs,  and  Ecclesiastes  ;  but  we  cannot 
infer  from  this  silence  that  these  books  were  not  in  the 
Canon. 

1  Compare  John  vi.  45  ;  Acts  vii.  42,  xiii.  40. 


EVIDENCES  OF  A   COMPLETED  CANON      9 

3.  It  may  be  that  we  have  another  indication  of  the 
tripartite  division  of  the  Canon  in  Matt,  xxiii.  35  and  Luke 
xi.  51,  for  Zechariah  is  the  last-mentioned  martyr  in  the 
Book  of  Chronicles  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  20-22),  which  was 
the  closing  book  of  the  Hebrew  Canon. 

§  6.  The  testimony  of  Josephus  (born  a.d.  37- 
38,  and  lived  till  about  a.d.  iio)  is  to  the  same 
effect,  and  is  even  more  explicit.  Speaking  of  the 
trustworthiness  of  the  documents  relating  the 
history  of  his  nation,  he  says,1  "  For  it  is  not  the 
case  with  us  to  have  vast  numbers  of  books  dis- 
agreeing and  conflicting  with  one  another.  We 
have  but  two-and-twenty  containing  the  history 
of  all  time,  books  that  are  justly  believed  in  "  (or, 
according  to  the  usual  reading,  "believed  to  be 
divine  ").  Then,  after  stating  the  contents  of  these 
books  under  three  heads,  he  proceeds  ;  "  From  the 
days  of  Artaxerxes  to  our  own  times  every  event 
has  indeed  been  recorded.  But  these  recent 
records  have  not  been  deemed  worthy  of  equal 
credit  with  those  which  preceded  them,  on  account 
of  the  failure  of  the  exact  succession  of  the 
prophets.  There  is  practical  proof  of  the  spirit  in 
which  we  treat  our  Scriptures.  For,  although  so 
great  an  interval  of  time  has  now  passed,  not  a 
soul  has  ventured  either  to  add,  or  to  remove,  or 
to  alter  a  syllable,  and  it  is  the  instinct  of  every 
Jew,  from  the  day  of  his  birth,  to  consider  these 
Scriptures  as  the  teaching  of  God,  to  abide  by 
them,  and,  if  need  be,  cheerfully  to  lay  down  his 
life  in  their  behalf."  In  this  passage  Josephus, 
speaking  for  his  nation  and  expressing  the  universal 
Jewish  belief  of  his  time,  asserts  that  the  Canon 

1  Contra  Apionem,  i.  8. 


io    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

of  Scripture  had  been  long  completed,  the  last  of 
the  books  contained  in  it  having  been  composed 
not  later  than  the  time  of  Artaxerxes  (by  whom  he 
means  the  king  called  Ahasuerus  in  the  book  of 
Esther).  We  gather  also  from  his  statement  that 
the  collection  comprised  the  same  books  as  form 
our  present  Old  Testament.  Though  he  mentions 
only  twenty-two  books,  it  is  most  probable  that  he 
reckoned  Ruth  as  forming  one  with  Judges,  and 
Lamentations  along  with  Jeremiah,  as  we  find 
other  writers  doing.  And  if  he  does  not  arrange 
the  books  in  the  Hebrew  order,  nor  name  particu- 
larly the  three  divisions  of  the  Canon,  this  is  to  be 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  he  wrote  in  Greek 
to  readers  who  were  familiar  with  the  Greek 
Version,  in  which  the  books  are  differently 
arranged. 

I.  We  may,  with  the  greatest  probability,  classify  the 
twenty-two  books  named  by  Josephus  in  the  following 
order:  (a)  the  "  books  of  Moses  which  comprise  the 
laws  and  the  earliest  traditions,  from  the  creation  of  man- 
kind down  to  the  time  of  his  death,"  i.e.  the  five  books 
of  the  Pentateuch.  (b)  The  thirteen  books  by  "the 
prophets  who  succeeded  Moses,"  and  "wrote  the  history 
of  the  events  that  occurred  in  their  own  time,"  would  be 
Joshua,  Judges  and  Ruth,  Samuel,  Kings,  Chronicles, 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  Esther,  Job,  Daniel,  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah  and  Lamentations,  Ezekiel,  the  Twelve  Minor 
Prophets,  (e)  "  The  remaining  four  documents  comprise 
hymns  to  God  and  practical  precepts  to  men,"  and  would 
be  Psalms,  Song  of  Songs,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes. 

§  7.  The  Septuagint  is  the  name  given  to  the 
Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  which  was 
in  use  among  Greek-speaking  Jews  in  New  Testa- 
ment times,  and  from  which  the  New  Testament 


EVIDENCES  OF  A  COMPLETED  CANON    n 

writers,  writing  for  Greek- speaking  people,  made 
quotation.  This  version  contains  all  the 
canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  in  what  is 
virtually  the  same  form.  We  have  reliable  in- 
formation of  the  time  at  which  the  translation  was 
undertaken,  viz.  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
phus,  who  reigned  from  B.C.  284  to  247, — though 
the  date  of  its  completion  is  not  so  certain.  Since 
it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  books  were 
regarded  as  canonical  before  they  were  translated, 
we  may  conclude  that  a  Canon  of  some  compass 
existed  before  the  translation  Mas  undertaken,  and 
that  the  whole  Canon  existed  before  it  was  con- 
cluded. Seeing,  however,  that  the  date  of  comple- 
tion of  the  translation  is  uncertain,  and  seeing  also 
that  in  the  Septuagint  collection  there  are  included 
other  books  besides  the  canonical  books  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible,  we  must  look  for  other  evidence  of 
the  independent  existence  and  high  authority  of 
the  Canon. 

1.  The  Septuagint  contains,  besides  the  books  of  the 
Hebrew  Canon,  and  mixed  with  them,  the  Books  of  the 
Maccabees,  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  Ecclesiasticus,  and 
the  other  books  which  we  generally  designate  the 
Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament  (see  below  §  15,  2). 

2.  In  the  Septuagint,  at  the  close  of  the  book  of 
Esther,  there  is  a  note  stating  that  the  translation  of  that 
book  was  introduced  in  the  fourth  year  of  Ptolemy  and 
Cleopatra,  which  would  be  B.C.  178  (if  Ptolemy  VI.  is 
referred  to)  or  B.C.  114  (if  it  is  Ptolemy  VIII.)  And, 
no  doubt  by  the  time  this  was  done,  the  rest  of  the  books 
would  have  been  translated. 

§  8.  The  books  of  the  Maccabees  belong  to 
about  B.C.  100,  and  thus  carry  us  back  more  than 


12    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

a  century  before  Josephus.  In  these  books, 
although  we  do  not  find  precise  information  in 
regard  to  the  Canon,  we  come  upon  notices  and 
expressions  which  imply  the  existence  of  canonical 
books.  Thus,  in  the  first  book  (i  Mace.  xii.  9), 
we  find  a  reference  to  "the  sacred  books  which 
are  in  our  hands,"  a  mode  of  speech  that  could  only 
have  been  employed  with  reference  to  a  special 
number  of  books  held  peculiarly  sacred.  The 
book  also  contains  (ch.  vii.  16,  17)  a  quotation 
from  Ps.  lxxix.  2,  3.  In  the  second  book  there 
is  a  passage  of  more  interest.  It  forms  part  of  one 
of  the  two  letters  prefixed  to  the  book  (I.  1- 
II.  18),  purporting  to  have  been  sent  by  the  Jews 
of  Palestine  to  their  brethren  in  Egypt,  in  the  year 
B.C.  144,  and  is  in  the  following  terms  :  "And  the 
same  things  also  were  reported  in  the  records,  viz. 
the  memoirs  of  Nehemiah  ;  and  how  he,  founding 
a  library,  gathered  together  the  books  concerning 
the  kings  and  prophets,  and  the  books  (or  things)  of 
David,  and  epistles  of  kings  concerning  holy  gifts. 
And  in  like  manner  also  Judas  gathered  together 
all  those  books  that  had  been  scattered,  by  reason 
of  the  wars  we  had,  and  they  are  with  us  "  (II.  1 3, 
14).  There  are  doubts  as  to  the  date  and  authen- 
ticity of  this  passage  ;  but,  taking  it  as  at  least  as 
early  as  the  main  portion  of  the  book,  we  may 
regard  it  as  giving  expression  to  a  belief  current 
at  that  time,  that  certain  books  "  concerning  the 
kings  and  prophets,  and  those  of  David,"  etc., 
were  brought  together  under  Nehemiah  as  part  of 
a  "library  "  formed  by  him  ;  and  also  that  Judas, 
i.e.  the  Maccabee,  gathered  together  after  the  war 
the  books  which  in  the  writer's  time  were  reverently 


EVIDENCES  OF  A   COMPLETED  CANON    13 

preserved.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  these 
statements  occur  in  books  which  form  part  of  the 
Septuagint  collection  ;  and  it  is  plain  that  the 
writers,  in  referring  in  such  terms  to  the  books  in 
question,  place  them  on  a  higher  level  than  their 
own  productions. 

1.  The  reference  to  Nehemiah  is  remarkable,  for  Ezra, 
who  was  his  contemporary,  is  always  spoken  of  as  the 
"restorer  of  the  law."  It  is  legitimate  to  conclude  that 
by  the  "books  concerning  kings  and  prophets"  were 
meant  the  historical  and  prophetical  books  (or  some  of 
them  at  least),  which  constitute  the  second  division  of 
the  Canon  (see  §  3) ;  while  "  those  of  David,  and  epistles 
of  kings  concerning  holy  gifts,"  refer  to  the  Psalms,  and 
such  documents  as  the  decrees  of  the  Persian  kings 
relating  to  the  return  of  the  Jews  to  Jerusalem,1  in  fact 
to  the  third  division  of  the  Canon,  or  some  undefined 
part  of  it. 

2.  The  reference  in  the  passage  to  Judas  Maccabaeus, 
is  taken  by  some  to  indicate  the  writer's  belief  that  the 
last  additions  were  made  to  the  Canon  in  the  time  of 
Judas. 

£  9.  Another  of  the  books  included  in  the 
Septuagint  collection  is  the  Wisdom  of  Jesus 
ben  Sirach,  otherwise  known  as  the  book  of 
Ecclesiasticus.  The  book  was  originally  com- 
posed in  Hebrew,  and  was  translated  into  Greek 
by  the  grandson  of  the  author,  who  has  prefixed 
to  it  a  prologue  or  preface.  The  reference  which 
he  therein  gives  to  the  date  is  generally  understood 
to  imply  that  he  himself  came  into  Egypt  in  the 
year  b.o.  132.  This  would  give  the  date  of  his 
grandfather  somewhere  about  b.o.  200,  certainly 
not  later  than  180,  for  the  book  has  no  reference 

1  See,  e.g.,  Ezra,  i.  1-4;  iv.  17-22;  vi.  .5-12;  vii.  11-28. 


i4    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

to  the  Maccabean  wars  (from  175  onwards).  The 
book  itself  gives  no  direct  information  on  the  his- 
tory of  the  Canon,  but  it  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the 
high  value  set  by  the  author  on  the  canonical  books. 
In  various  terms  he  magnifies  "  the  Law,"  using  the 
expression  apparently  (as  we  find  it  also  used  in  the 
New  Testament)  1  for  Scripture  generally  ;  and  in 
one  passage  (ch.  xlix.  10),  where  he  is  enumerating 
the  great  men  of  former  times,  he  speaks  of  the 
"  twelve  prophets  "  (showing  that  he  was  thinking 
of  the  books).  The  testimony,  however,  of  the 
grandson  and  editor  is  more  precise.  He  tells  us 
that  his  grandfather  was  familiar  with  the  "  law 
and  the  prophets  and  the  other  books  which  follow 
them,"  or,  as  he  again  describes  them,  "  the  other 
books  of  the  fathers,"  or  "  the  rest  of  the  books." 
Moreover,  in  speaking  of  his  own  work  as  a  trans- 
lation, he  tells  us  that  "  the  law  itself  and  the 
prophecies  and  the  rest  of  the  books,  have  no  small 
difference  uttered  in  the  original "  ;  plainly  indi- 
cating that  the  books  referred  to  already  existed 
in  a  well-known  Greek  translation.  Though  these 
passages  do  not  give  us  precise  information  as  to 
the  compass  of  the  Canon,  and  particularly  of  the 
third  division  of  it,  they  make  it  clear  that,  at  the 
date  of  ben  Sirach  himself,  a  number  of  canonical 
books,  reckoned  in  three  classes,  were  well  known 
and  universally  accepted,  and  that,  in  the  time  of 
the  editor,  these  books  existed  in  a  well-known 
Greek  translation.  The  testimony  is  all  the  more 
valuable  because  the  book  in  which  it  occurs  was 
originally  written  in  Hebrew  ;  and  the  author  of  it, 

1  See   John   x.  34 ;   xii.   34 ;    xv.   25 ;   1   Cor.    xiv.    21,  and   the 
marginal  references. 


EVIDENCES  OF  A  COMPLETED  CANON    15 

while  almost  claiming  for  himself  the  same  inspira- 
tion as  prophets  possessed  (ch.  xxiv.  33),  sets  his 
own  work  below  the  level  of  canonical  Scripture  ; 
and,  though  the  book  has  found  a  place  in  the 
LXX.  Version,  the  translator  himself  distinguishes 
between  it  and  the  Sacred  Writings. 

1.  It  may  be,  as  many  think,  that  the  general  terms  in 
which  the  third  division  of  the  Canon  is  spoken  of,  give 
an  indication  that  the  compass  of  that  division  was  not 
then  finally  fixed.  But  it  is  to  be  remembered,  on  the 
other  side,  that  the  third  division  is  described  in  the 
same  general  way  at  a  much  later  time  when  it  was  cer- 
tainly complete, — as,  e.g.,  in  the  New  Testament ;  and 
that  no  more  precise  designation  of  it  as  a  whole  has  ever 
been  employed  than  that  of  "Writings"  or  Hagiographa. 


16    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    IV 

GRADUAL  FORMATION  OF  THE  CANON 

§  10.  When  we  attempt  to  reach  an  earlier  time, 
precise  historical  notices  fail  us.  The  Jewish 
tradition,  which  passed  over  into  the  Christian 
Church,  that  the  Canon  was  completed  by  Ezra, 
is  found  first  in  the  apocryphal  fourth  book  of 
Esdras,  which  belongs  to  the  first  century  of  the 
Christian  era ;  and,  apart  from  its  legendary 
character,  there  are  various  considerations  which 
tend  to  show  that,  though  there  is  a  kernel  of 
truth  in  it,  it  simply  expressed  the  desire  of  a  later 
time  to  explain  the  existence  of  what  by  that  time 
was  a  thing  of  high  antiquity.  Thus,  e.g.t  we  have 
the  facts  {a)  that  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah 
are  themselves  in  the  collection  ;  (b)  that  the  book 
of  Chronicles  contains  genealogies  that  come  down 
to  a  much  later  time,  not  to  speak  of  other  books 
in  the  third  division  which  also  contain  indications 
of  a  later  date.  Moreover  (c)  the  fact  that  the 
Samaritans  possess  only  the  Pentateuch  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  at  the  time  of  their  final 
separation  from  the  Jews  this  was  the  only  accepted 
Canon ;  and  (d)  the  tripartite  division  can  only  be 


GRADUAL  FORMATION  OF  THE  CANON    17 

satisfactorily  explained  on  the  supposition  of  a 
gradual  collection  and  a  canonising  by  repeated 
stages. 

1.  From  the  legendary  account  we  can  extract  at  least 
the  fact  that  by  the  writer's  time  twenty-four  books  formed 
the  Canon  ;  and  the  ascription  of  the  collection  to  Ezra 
is  testimony  to  the  well-established  fact  that  he  had  a 
most  important  share  in  the  work. 

§  11.  It  is  evident  that  the  collection  of  a  cer- 
tain number  of  books  into  a  Canon  must  have  been 
made  on  some  principle.  The  collection  is  not  a 
fortuitous  one,  nor  can  it  be  a  mere  selection  of 
works,  say,  as  the  best  specimens  of  the  nation's 
literature.  It  could  not  have  been  the  simple 
matter  of  date  that  determined  the  right  of  certain 
books  to  a  place  in  the  collection  ;  for  they  are  of 
very  different  ages,  some  of  them  belonging  to  a 
time  very  near  to  that  at  which  we  have  evidence 
of  a  canonical  collection,  while,  as  we  have  seen, 
other  books,  though  valuable,  were  excluded.  The 
writings  have  this  in  common  that  they  are 
religious  books,  and  we  gather  from  the  earliest 
references  to  the  collection  that  it  was  of  a  national 
character.  The  later  Jews  distinguished  three 
grades  of  inspiration  as  determining  the  three 
divisions  of  the  Canon.  This  was,  no  doubt,  an 
afterthought,  but  it  points  to  the  fact  that  all  the 
books  were  regarded  as  possessing  a  divine  author- 
ity. It  is  more  natural  to  suppose  that  it  was 
because  individual  books  were  already  in  high 
esteem  that  they  were  formed  into  a  collection, 
than  that  their  collection  invested  them  with 
authority.  We  are  led,  therefore,  to  inquire 
whether   we   have   any  evidence  of  such   a    high 


18    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

regard  being  paid  to  separate  books  before  there 
was  a  formal  canonical  collection. 

§  12.  In  the  canonical  books  themselves  there 
are  proofs  that  certain  writings,  or  collections  of 
writings,  existed,  and  were  of  peculiar  esteem, 
before  there  was  such  a  formal  collection  of  books 
as  we  understand  by  a  Canon.  Thus  (i)  we  are 
told  in  various  places  of  the  Pentateuch  that  col- 
lections of  laws  and  other  matters  were  written 
down  at  certain  times  and  carefully  preserved.1 
(2)  Not  only  in  the  Pentateuch  {e.g.  in  Lev.  x. 
1 1  ;  Deut.  xvii.  9),  but  throughout  the  prophets, 
we  are  informed  that  it  was  the  duty  of  the  priests 
to  teach  the  people  the  law ;  and  though  there 
may  be  doubts  as  to  the  compass  of  the  Law  re- 
ferred to,  or  though  it  may  be  regarded  as  having 
been  transmitted  orally,  the  duty  laid  upon  the 
priests  implies  that  the  thing  to  be  explained  was 
fixed  and  authoritative.  (3)  We  gather  from  the 
book  of  Proverbs  (xxv.  1)  that  at  the  court  of 
King  Hezekiah  there  were  "  wise  "  men  employed 
in  sifting  and  collecting  proverbial  literature.  (4) 
The  prophets,  or  their  pupils  for  them,  wrote  down 
certain  of  their  productions  ;  and  the  way  in  which 
these  productions  are  spoken  of  indicates  that 
they  were  regarded  not  as  private,  irresponsible 
musings,  but  writings  with  a  public,  national,  and 
religious  reference.  (5)  In  the  18th  year  of  the 
reign  of  King  Josiah  (see  2  Kings  xxii.  23)  there 
was  found  in  the  Temple  a  law  book,  which — 
whatever  it  may  have  been — was  at  once  recog- 
nised by  king,  priests,  prophets,  and  people  as 
authoritative  and  ancient.      (6)  We  read  not  only 

1  Exod.  xxxi.  18,  xl.  20  ;  Deut.  xxxi.  26;  cf.  1  Sam.  x.  25. 


GRADUAL  FORMATION  OF  THE  CANON    19 

of  the  writing  of  books,  but  of  study  of  them  at  com- 
paratively early  times,  and  of  certain  pieces  being 
specially  set  apart  to  be  learned  by  the  people.1  (7) 
To  which  references  may  be  added  a  consideration 
suggested  by  the  literary  features  of  the  books 
themselves.  In  the  analysis  which  has  been  made 
particularly  of  the  Pentateuch  and  the  historical 
books,  it  appears  that,  while  different  sources  or 
original  compositions  have  been  joined  together, 
there  has  been  a  careful  preservation,  by  those 
who  made  the  combination,  of  even  the  smallest 
fragments  of  the  originals  ;  a  proof  that  even 
the  earliest  documents  were  treated  as  precious 
national  property,  not  to  be  handled  lightly  or  dis- 
posed of  at  an  editor's  caprice.  All  these  con- 
siderations go  to  prove  that  the  Jewish  people, 
from  an  early  time,  possessed  a  number  of  writings 
of  a  religious  and  national  character,  which  they 
preserved  with  peculiar  regard  (see  §  4). 

§  13.  It  is  not,  however,  till  the  time  imme- 
diately after  the  return  from  the  exile,  that  we 
find  such  a  formal  setting  apart  of  Scripture  for 
public  use  and  authoritative  reference  as  is  implied 
in  canonising.  The  circumstances  of  the  people 
demanded  it,  and  the  time  was  favourable.  The 
books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  show  us  that  the 
task  before  these  leaders  was  to  consolidate  the 
restored  community  on  the  basis  of  the  old  cove- 
nant, and  to  provide  safeguards  for  the  national 
preservation  of  the  religion  against  internal  cor- 
ruption and  heathen  contamination.  Accordingly 
they  appointed  a  formal  and  stated  reading  of  the 

1  See  Dent.  xxxi.  19  flf. ;  2  Sam.  i.  18;   Ps.  lxi.  1  (title)  ;   Isa.  xxxiv. 
16  ;   Ps.  i.  and  cxix.  {study  of  the  law). 


so    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

Book  of  the  Law  in  the  audience  of  the  people 
(Neh.  viii.-x.),  and  carried  out  its  requirements 
relating  to  social  life  and  religious  observances. 
From  this  time  onwards,  no  doubt,  the  public  read- 
ing of  the  sacred  books  formed  part  of  public  wor- 
ship ;  and  canonical  Scripture,  in  the  strict  sense, 
was  recognised.  It  is  generally  believed  that  the 
first  division  of  the  Canon  was  by  that  time  sub- 
stantially in  the  form  in  which  we  now  have  it ;  in 
other  words,  that  the  book  of  the  Law  spoken 
of  in  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  was  the 
Pentateuch. 

1.  The  prominence  given  at  this  crisis  to  the  books 
of  the  Law  should  not  be  taken  to  imply  that  other 
books  were  not  in  existence,  or  not  esteemed  sacred. 
In  the  remarkable  prayer  contained  in  Neh.  ix.,  while, 
as  was  natural  in  the  circumstances,  the  first  consolida- 
tion of  the  nation  at  the  Exodus,  and  the  first  occupation 
of  the  land,  are  chiefly  dwelt  upon,  not  only  is  the  period 
of  the  judges  also  clearly  in  view  (vv.  26-28,  which 
recall  the  very  words  of  the  book  of  Judges,  ii.  11  ff. ), 
but  also  the  prophetic  period  (vv.  30,  31),  and  the  whole 
history  of  the  people  "since  the  time  of  the  kings  of 
Assyria  unto  this  day  "  (v.  32).  The  primary  need  of 
the  time  was  the  order  of  a  settled  constitution,  and  this 
the  Law  provided. 

2.  The  statement  that  is  often  made  that,  at  this 
period,  Israel  was  no  longer  a  nation  but  a  Church,  is 
to  be  accepted  with  the  reservation  that,  in  everything 
except  national  independence,  they  were  as  much  a 
nation  as  ever.  They  were  permitted  by  the  Persian 
power  to  administer  their  internal  civil  affairs  ;  and  their 
zeal  to  keep  themselves  pure  from  heathen  contamination 
arose  from  national  feeling.  The  prominence  given  to 
the  Law,  and  not  to  prophetical  or  other  books,  is 
another  indication  that  it  was  civil  order  and  national 


GRADUAL  FORMATION  OF  THE  CANON    21 

purity,  rather  than  doctrine  or  peculiar  beliefs  that  were 
first  in  their  regard. 

§  14.  The  enlarged  experience  and  growing 
necessities  of  the  restored  community  no  doubt 
furnish  the  explanation  of  the  enlargement  of  the 
Canon  that  subsequently  took  place.  The  longer 
they  remained  without  national  independence,  the 
more  they  would  reverence  their  sacred  books  which 
were  the  record  of  their  past  national  history,  and 
expressed  the  national  religious  hopes.  As  the 
prophets,  by  the  living  voice,  had  reminded  their 
hearers  of  the  great  past,  and  pointed  forward  to 
a  greater  future,  so  the  prophetical  hooks  would 
foster  the  best  feelings  of  later  times,  and  take 
their  place  by  the  side  of  the  law  as  authoritative 
symbols  of  the  national  faith  and  hope.  At  what 
precise  time  the  custom  originated  of  reading  a 
portion  of  the  prophetical  Scriptures  in  public  wor- 
ship cannot,  perhaps,  be  determined.  But  we  have 
seen  that  the  earliest  notices  we  possess  refer  to 
the  law  and  the  prophets  together.  It  must  have 
been  some  time  after  the  date  of  Malachi,  who  is 
the  latest  of  the  prophets,  and  when  the  conviction 
had  been  formed  that  no  more  books  of  this 
class  were  to  be  written,  that  the  prophetical  col- 
lection was  regarded  as  finally  closed.  But  by 
the  time  of  ben  Sirach  (§  9)  it  would  seem  the 
collection  was  of  long  standing,  and  by  the  time 
of  his  editor  it  had  also  been  translated  into  Greek. 
As,  however,  we  have  no  record  of  a  formal  act  by 
which  it  was  done,  we  cannot  fix  the  exact  date  of 
the  incorporation  of  the  prophets  into  the  Canon. 

1.  The  tradition  contained  in  the  letter  prefixed  to  the 
second  book  of  Maccabees  (§  8),  ascribing  to  Nchemiah 


22    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

the  collecting  of  "  the  books  concerning  the  kings  and 
prophets,"  is  interesting  here  as  indicating  the  existence 
of  at  least  some  of  both  classes  of  the  books  of  this  divi- 
sion of  the  Canon,  and  a  high  regard  for  them  at  the  very 
time  that  the  Law  was  made  the  more  prominent  Scrip- 
ture. It  may  be  added  that  if,  as  critics  generally 
believe,  the  book  of  Joshua  originally  was  joined  to 
the  Pentateuch,  it  must  have  been  regarded  as  equally 
authoritative,  though,  for  practical  purposes,  it  was  dis- 
joined from  the  books  of  the  Law.  And  the  references 
in  the  book  of  Nehemiah,.  not  only  to  the  time  of  the 
Conquest,  but  to  that  of  the  judges  (§  13,  1),  show  how 
the  historical  books  generally  received  at  that  time  parti- 
cular attention. 

§  1 5.  Similarly,  we  have  only  general  indica- 
tions to  guide  us  in  an  attempt  to  determine  when 
the  third  division  of  books  was  added,  and  the 
final  closing  of  the  Canon  took  place.  The  in- 
dications point  to  a  gradual  process,  but  do  not 
warrant  us  in  fixing  a  particular  time  for  its  ter- 
mination. It  is  most  probable  that  the  Psalms, 
or  some  of  them,  were  used  in  public  worship  from 
the  earliest  period  after  the  return  from  the  exile  ; 
and  we  have  seen  that  to  Nehemiah  is  ascribed 
the  collection  of  "  the  things  of  David "  (§  8). 
Then,  again,  we  have  in  ben  Sirach  (§  9)  those 
references  to  the  "  other  books  "  which  were  held 
in  veneration  along  with  the  law  and  the  prophets. 
The  "  five  rolls  "  (§  3)  came  to  be  set  apart  for 
public  reading  on  five  great  festivals  ;  and  the 
Talmud  speaks  of  a  solemn  reading  of  some  of  the 
books  contained  in  the  third  division  in  the  pre- 
sence of  the  high  priest  on  the  night  before  the 
great  Day  of  Atonement.  The  time  of  the  final 
completion  of  the  Canon  must  manifestly  have  been 


GRADUAL  FORMATION  OF  THE  CANON   23 

sometime  later  than  the  date  of  the  composition 
of  the  most  recent  book  in  the  collection,  and  when 
it  was  believed  that  no  more  books  worthy  to  be 
included  in  it  were  forthcoming.  No  doubt  there 
is  room  for  difference  of  opinion  as  to  where  such 
a  limit  is  to  be  fixed  ;  but  there  seems  no  doubt, 
in  view  of  the  statements  of  the  New  Testament 
and  Josephus  (§§  5,  6),  that  in  the  first  century  of 
our  era  the  Canon  was  accepted  as  long  closed, 
though  we  have  no  record  of  any  formal  act  by 
which  it  was  done.  The  gradual  collection  and 
final  completion  of  the  Canon  not  only  furnish  the 
true  explanation  of  its  threefold  division,  but 
enhance  also  the  value  of  the  whole,  by  exhibiting 
the  care  with  which  the  books  were  preserved, 
and  the  deliberation  with  which  they  were  set 
apart  as  authoritative  Scripture. 

1.  The  Talmud  records  certain  discussions  that  went 
on  as  late  as  about  A.D.  120  regarding  the  authority 
of  certain  books  of  the  third  division,  and  this  has  led 
some  to  place  the  completion  of  the  Canon  as  far  down 
as  even  the  second  century  a.  d.  The  tenor  of  these  dis- 
cussions, however,  shows  that  they  arose  out  of  varieties 
of  opinion  as  to  the  contents  of  some  of  the  books,  or 
difficulties  in  reconciling  them  with  other  books,  in  the 
Canon,  such  as  have  been  also  expressed  by  Christian 
writers  in  regard  to  some  of  the  New  Testament  books. 
At  most,  they  indicate  doubts  on  the  part  of  some  as  to 
whether  certain  books  ought  to  be  in  the  Canon,  but  no 
doubt  of  the  fact  that  they  were  already  there. 

2.  The  "disputed"  books  which  are  found  in  the 
Canon,  though  their  claims  may  have  been  contested, 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Apocrypha  of  the 
Old  Testament,  which  were  never  in  the  Palestinian 
Canon  at  all.  The  latter  were  included,  along  with  the 
Greek  translations  of  the  canonical  books,  in  the  Alex- 


24    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

andrian  Collection  of  the  Septuagint ;  and,  since  that 
version  became  the  "Bible"  of  Greek -speaking  Christians, 
who  were  unacquainted  with  Hebrew,  all  the  books  in 
the  Collection  came  to  be  quoted  and  regarded  as 
"  Scripture."  The  same  thing  naturally  took  place  with 
other  Christian  Versions  based  upon  the  Septuagint ; 
till,  finally,  the  Council  of  Trent,  in  A. p.  1546,  declared 
that  all  the  books  in  the  Latin  Vulgate  were  equally 
inspired,  and  thus  the  Apocrypha  are  included  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Bible.  Jerome,  however,  had  drawn 
a  distinction  between  canonical  and  apocryphal  books, 
meaning  by  the  latter  term  all  ecclesiastical  literature 
not  included  in  the  Hebrew  Canon.  The  Reformed 
Churches  also,  though  they  often  printed  the  Apocrypha 
at  the  end  of  the  Old  Testament,  drew  a  distinction 
between  them  and  the  canonical  books.  The  word 
Apocrypha  means  hidden  (things),  and  was  first  of  all 
applied  to  mystical  writings,  which  could  be  understood 
only  by  the  initiated.  It  was  then  used  to  denote  books 
whose  authorship  was  unknown,  and  then  applied  to 
spurious  or  fictitious,  and  finally  to  heretical,  books. 
The  additional  books  of  the  LXX.  and  Vulgate,  to 
which,  in  the  restricted  sense,  the  name  is  usually  applied, 
are  :  the  books  of  Tobit,  Judith,  Wisdom  of  Solomon, 
Ecclesiasticus,  Baruch,  1st  and  2nd  Maccabees,  and 
the  Additions  to  Daniel  and  Esther.  To  these  the 
Reformed  Churches  added  1st  and  2nd  Esdras,  and  the 
Prayer  of  Manasseh.  It  should  be  mentioned  that,  besides 
these,  there  is  a  considerable  number  of  books  belonging 
to  about  the  same  period,  which  would  come  under 
Jerome's  description  of  ecclesiastical  literature,  although 
the  name  Apocrypha  is  not  applied  to  them.  The  chief 
works  in  this  class  are  :  the  3rd  and  4th  books  of  the 
Maccabees,  the  Psalms  of  Solomon,  the  Book  of  Enoch, 
the  Assumption  of  Moses,  the  Book  of  Jubilees,  the 
Sibylline  Oracles,  etc.  They  are  particularly  interesting 
for  the  light  they  throw  upon  the  religious  ideas  current 
among  the  Jews  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 


TRANSMISSION  OF  THE  CANON  25 


CHAPTER    V 

TRANSMISSION  OF  THE  CANON 

§  1 6.  We  have  thus  seen  the  manner  in  which 
the  books  were  collected  into  the  Canon.  We 
have  now  to  inquire  (see  §  2)  what  guarantee  we 
have  that  the  books  now  in  our  possession  are  the 
same  as  those  thus  collected,  and  in  what  manner 
they  have  been  transmitted  to  us.  A  very  inter- 
esting question  arises  at  the  outset,  as  to  the 
appearance  of  the  books  at  the  time  of  their  first 
collection.  We  know  from  old  monuments  that 
the  ancient  mode  of  Hebrew  writing  was  differ- 
ent from  that  in  which  the  Scriptures  have  been 
handed  down  ;  and  as  the  Samaritans  have  pre- 
served their  Pentateuch  in  a  character  which  is 
only  a  modification  of  the  older  Hebrew,  we  may 
conclude  that  the  older  mode  of  writing  was  in 
use  at  the  time  of  their  separation  from  the  Jews. 
Therefore,  such  books  as  were  written  in  this 
character  must  have  been  transcribed  at  some 
time  into  the  "square"  character  in  which  they 
now  all  appear  in  the  Hebrew  Bible.  This  was 
the  work  of  the  Scribes  whose  activity  must  be 
dated  from  the  time  of  Ezra,  if  not  earlier,  for  he 


26    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

is  described  as  "  a  ready  scribe  in  the  law  of 
Moses "  (Ezra  vii.  6) ;  and  the  Jewish  tradition 
which  ascribes  to  him  the  introduction  of  the 
square  character,  and  the  restoration  of  the  Law, 
or  even  the  rewriting  of  the  whole  of  the  Old 
Testament  books,  no  doubt  rests  upon  the  basis 
of  the  undoubted  fact  that  it  was  by  his  influence 
that  an  impulse  was  given  in  the  restored  com- 
munity to  a  careful  preservation  and  study  of 
Scripture.  With  him  and  Nehemiah  were  associ- 
ated a  number  of  leading  men  in  the  nation  (see 
Neh.  viii.  4  ff.)  ;  and,  since  the  attention  to  written 
Scripture  increased  from  this  time  onwards,  the 
work  of  the  scribes  in  preserving,  copying,  and 
handing  on  the  sacred  books  would  assume  a 
more  technical  and  professional  character.  Books 
that  were  authoritative  standards  and  used  in 
public  worship  would  be  sought  for  in  transcripts 
of  guaranteed  accuracy.  And  thus  the  Scribes, 
having  their  capabilities  improved  by  exercise, 
would  be  stimulated  to  increased  carefulness  by 
the  responsibility  resting  upon  them.  Their  work 
is  in  a  manner  vouched  for  by  the  religious  con- 
sciousness of  their  times. 

1.  Jewish  tradition  speaks  of  a  "Great  Synagogue" 
dating  from  the  time  of  the  captivity,  to  whom  is  ascribed 
in  a  special  way  the  editing  and  handing  down  of  the 
books.  Under  a  great  deal  that  is  fanciful  in  the  tradi- 
tion, we  must  recognise  two  facts,  that  much  care  was 
bestowed  on  the  books,  and  that  the  transmission  of  them 
must  have  been  through  hands  specially  trained  and  by 
persons  publicly  trusted  and  esteemed. 

§  1 7.  The  books  as  first  copied  and  multiplied 
by  the  Scribes  must  have  presented  very  much  the 


TRANSMISSION  OF  THE  CANON  27 

appearance  of  the  rolls  of  the  Law  still  in  use  in 
the  Jewish  synagogues.  In  these  rolls  the  books 
are  written  in  what  is  called  unpointed  Hebrew ; 
i.e.  only  the  consonants  of  the  words  are  written, 
the  vowels  being  supplied  by  the  reader.  Thus, 
for  example,  the  words  David,  Horeb  are  simply 
written  DVD,  HRB  ;  and  the  reader,  guided  by 
his  knowledge  of  the  language  and  by  the  context, 
pronounced  the  words  with  their  appropriate 
vowels.  Of  course  the  ability  to  read  a  text  of  this 
kind  with  sufficient  accuracy  would  be  the  ambition 
of  learned  men  ;  and  among  a  special  class  of  such 
men  the  tradition  would  be  maintained.  So, 
when  the  Hebrew  as  a  living  language  was  passing 
away,  these  "  masters  of  the  tradition "  became 
authorities  for  the  correct  pronunciation,  and  they 
devised  a  system  of  punctuation — the  so-called 
vowel  points — by  which  to  represent  the  appropri- 
ate vowels.  These  points  they  wrote  above  or 
below  the  consonants,  in  such  a  way  that  the 
original  text  was  untouched.  Thus  they  would, 
e.g.,  write  DaViD  and  H°ReB,  thereby  guiding  the 
less  learned  to  the  reading,  and  perpetuating  the 
tradition  in  a  visible  form,  while  retaining  the 
original  consonantal  text  entire  and  unchanged. 
The  Hebrew  word  for  traditio?i  is  Massora,  and 
so  the  text  as  it  has  been  handed  down  with  its 
vowel-signs  is  called  the  Massoretic  Text.  In 
addition  to  the  vowel  points  there  was  also  added, 
above  or  below  the  letters,  a  system  of  accents 
indicating  the  proper  accentuation  of  the  words, 
the  manner  in  which  they  were  to  be  conjoined 
or  disjoined,  and  the  style  or  tone  in  which  the 
text    was    to    be    recited.       The    printed    Hebrew 


28    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

Bibles  in  use  both  among  Jews  and  Christians  are 
provided  with  all  these  points  and  accents, 
constituting"  what  we  may  call  the  received  text, 
and  indicating  with  sufficient  clearness  the  sense 
in  which  the  Massoretes  understood  their  Scrip- 
tures. 

i.  To  show  how  skill  is  needed  in  reading  the  con- 
sonantal text,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  letters  DVD 
might  also  be  pronounced  so  as  to  give  the  meaning  of 
love,  pot,  etc.,  and  HRB  with  the  change  of  a  vowel 
might  be  pronounced  to  mean  szvord. 

2.  Though  the  Jews  use  fully  pointed  texts  for  ordinary 
purposes,  they  still  use  only  unpointed  rolls  of  the  Law 
for  reading  in  the  synagogue.  The  placing  of  the  vowel 
points  outside  the  text  shows  the  scrupulous  care  that 
was  taken  in  preserving  the  original  form  of  the  text. 
It  will  be  perceived  that  scholars  are  able,  by  discarding 
or  altering  the  vowel  points,  to  observe  different  modes 
of  reading  the  consonantal  text. 

§  1 8.  Though  we  have  abundant  evidence  of  the 
great  care  bestowed  by  the  Massoretes  on  the  text, 
we  have  no  manuscripts  which  enable  us  to  go 
behind  them  and  check  the  text  which  they  have 
handed  down.  In  the  case  of  the  New  Testament 
we  have  manuscripts  which  reach  back  to  within 
three  or  four  centuries  of  the  time  at  which  the 
original  books  must  have  been  written.  But  in 
the  case  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  Massoretic  text 
itself  was  not  completely  equipped  till  about  the 
seventh  century  A.D.,  and  the  oldest  manuscripts 
which  we  possess  are  about  two  centuries  later,  and 
are  all  based  upon  the  Massoretic  text  itself.  We 
have,  however,  in  the  ancient  versions  or  transla- 
tions of  the   Hebrew  books,  most  valuable  means 


TRANSMISSION  OF  THE  CANON  29 

of  testing  the  fidelity  with  which  the  books  were 
preserved  in  pre-Massoretic  times.  The  Septua- 
gint  version,  e.g.,  which  (as  we  have  seen,  §7) 
was  begun  about  B.C.  280,  long  before  vowel  signs 
or  accents  were  employed,  shows  that  the  texts 
were  read  and  understood  practically  in  the  sense 
in  which  the  Massoretes  have  handed  them  down 
to  us.  There  are,  no  doubt,  variations  in  details, 
as  might  have  been  expected,  such  as  would  arise 
from  the  mistaking  of  one  letter  for  another,  the 
joining  of  a  letter  of  one  word  to  another  so  as 
to  produce  a  different  reading,  or  the  reading  of  a 
word  with  different  vowels  ;  and,  in  some  of  the 
books,  indications  of  the  use  of  a  partially  divergent 
text.  But  when  we  take  into  account,  as  we  are 
bound  to  do,  the  risks  the  books  had  to  encounter 
in  such  a  long  period  of  transmission,  we  feel  that 
it  is  not  too  much  to  say  of  these  books,  that 
"  being  immediately  inspired  by  God,"  they  have 
been  "by  His  singular  care  and  providence  kept 
pure  in  all  ages."  1 

1.  The  "risks"  referred  to  were  partly  externa/,  aris- 
ing out  of  the  national  troubles  through  which  Israel  passed 
at  various  periods,  when  there  was  danger  of  the  sacred 
books  being  lost  or  destroyed  ;  partly  internal,  arising 
from  the  neglect  of  religion  on  the  one  hand,  and,  on  the 
other,  the  many  hands  through  which  the  books  had  to 
pass,  the  liability  to  error  attendant  on  everything  human, 
and  the  possibility  of  the  Greek  translators  not  being  in 
all  respects  thoroughly  equipped  for  their  important 
work. 

2.  One  instance  may  suffice  to  explain  how  a  "  various 
reading"  might  come  into  a  passage.  In  Gen.  xlvii.  31 
we  read  "Israel  bowed  himself  upon  the  bed's  head"  : 

1  Confession  of  Faith,  chap.  i.  8. 


30    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

while  in  Heb.  xi.  21,  which  refers  to  the  incident,  we 
read  that  he  "worshipped  [leaning]  upon  the  top  of  his 
staff."  In  the  unpointed  Hebrew  occurs  the  word  MTH, 
which  the  Massoretic  text  reads  MjTTH  a  bed,  while  the 
Septuagint,  which  is  quoted  in  Hebrews,  made  it  read 
MaTTeH,  a  staff. 

§  19.  Besides  the  Septuagint,  there  are  other 
ancient  versions  of  the  Old  Testament,  going 
back  to  a  time  before  the  completion  of  the  Masso- 
retic text.  There  are,  for  instance,  the  Jewish 
Targums,  or  translations  made  into  Aramaic,  which 
was  the  spoken  language  after  the  decay  of  Hebrew. 
There  is  also  the  Syriac  version  made  for  the  use 
of  the  Syrian  Christians.  And  there  are  various 
Latin  translations,  the  best  known  of  which  is 
the  Vulgate,  not  to  speak  of  other  versions.  From 
these,  which  were  made  either  direct  from  the 
Hebrew  or  from  the  Septuagint,  scholars  are  able 
to  determine  the  sense  in  which  the  texts  were 
read  ;  and  by  their  aid  they  can  check  the  received 
text  at  doubtful  points,  and  draw  their  conclusions 
as  to  what  the  original  readings  may  have  been. 
The  Massoretic  text,  however,  has  had  so  long  a 
history,  has  been  so  carefully  handed  down,  and  is 
in  the  main  so  thoroughly  supported  by  the  ver- 
sions, that  no  complete  text  of  the  Old  Testament 
has  yet  been  brought  forward  to  take  its  place  ; 
and  even  in  the  Revised  Version,  published  as  late 
as  1885,  "the  Revisers  have  thought  it  most  pru- 
dent to  adopt  the  Massoretic  Text  as  the  basis  of 
their  work,  and  to  depart  from  it,  as  the  Authorised 
Translators  had  done,  only  in  exceptional  cases."  x 

1  Preface  to  the  Revised  Version. 


GENERAL    VIE  W  OF  THE  BOOKS  31 


PART    II 

THE  BOOKS  COMPOSING  THE  OLD 
TESTAMENT 

CHAPTER    VI 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  BOOKS 

§  20.  The  Old  Testament  may  be  regarded,  as 
we  have  seen  (§§  1,  2),  not  merely  as  one  whole 
book,  but  also  as  a  collection  of  books ;  and  if 
we  look  at  it  for  a  moment  in  this  light,  apart  from 
the  divisions  and  arrangement  of  the  Canon  (§  3), 
we  shall  see  that  the  "Divine  Library"  consists 
of  literary  productions  belonging  to  very  different 
periods  and  relating'-  to  very  various  subjects. 
In  treating  of  their  contents  and  characteristics, 
there  would  be  many  advantages  in  arranging 
them,  if  it  were  possible,  in  the  chronological 
order  in  which  they  were  composed.  For  we 
should  thus  have,  as  we  have,  e.g.,  in  the  literature 
of  our  own  country,  a  succession  of  literary  periods 
corresponding  to  periods  in  the  national  history  : 
and  be  able  to  trace  the  progress  of  literature  and 
the  growth  of  national  thought  and  reflection  side 
by    side  with    the  movements  of  national   history. 


32     OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

To  a  certain  extent  and  at  some  periods  we  can 
do  this,  but  there  are  these  great  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  carrying  out  this  mode  of  treatment :  (a) 
The  most  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  are 
anonymous,  and  we  are  left  to  determine  from 
themselves  or  from  other  books  their  authorship 
and  date  of  composition.  (b)  The  language  in 
which  the  books  are  written  exhibits  such  a  perma- 
nency and  uniformity  that  we  are  unable,  on  that 
ground,  to  mark  out  definite  literary  periods,  {c) 
So  also,  although  we  can  perceive  an  advance  in 
the  thoughts,  and  a  broadening  of  the  views  of  the 
Old  Testament  writers  with  the  advance  of  time, 
there  is  a  marked  permanency  and  uniformity  of 
those  fundamental  conceptions  regarding  God 
and  Duty  with  which  the  Bible  chiefly  deals  ;  and 
it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  what  is  primitive  or 
early  from  what  is  late,  (d)  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that,  in  several  cases,  different  parts  of  the 
same  book  have  come  from  different  hands  and 
belong  to  different  times  (the  book  of  Psalms, 
e.g.,  is  a  striking  instance),  so  that  a  strict  chrono- 
logical arrangement  would  lead  to  the  breaking  up 
of  many  of  the  books  into  fragments. 

I.  It  is  difficult  for  an  English  reader  to  realise  the 
fact  that  the  language  of  Malachi  is  substantially  the 
same  as  that  of  the  earliest  books.  Though  scholars  find 
isolated  marks  of  earlier  or  later  date,  there  are  not  dis- 
tinct literary  periods,  as  such,  before  the  exile.  It  is  to  be 
remembered  that,  in  the  course  of  transcription,  changes 
of  orthography  may  have  been  made  in  the  MSS.,  just  as 
changes  have  taken  place  in  our  printed  Bibles.  Such 
changes  we  may  not  be  able  to  trace.  The  uniformity 
introduced  by  the  vowel  system  of  the  Massoretes  is 
more  perceptible.      We  must,  however,  come  to  the  con- 


GENERAL    VIEW  OF  THE  BOOKS  33 

elusion  that  from  a  very  early  period  the  Hebrew  language 
had  attained  a  fixity,  with  which  we  have  nothing  in  the 
early  history  of  our  language  to  compare 

§21.  An  arrangement  of  the  books  according 
to  their  subjects  is  also  open  to  objection.      The 
subjects   of  the  books   are  most  varied  :    history, 
law,  prophecy,  poetry,  and  philosophy  or  specula- 
tion of  its  kind.      But  these  subjects  are  so  pre- 
sented that  comparatively  few  of  the  books  could 
be  singled  out  as  treating  only  of  any  one  of  them. 
We   find   history   and    law   closely   interwoven 
together  ;  a  hard  and  fast   line  cannot  be  drawn 
between  poetry  and  prose  ;  the  prophetical  books 
cannot  be  regarded  apart  from  the  history  ;  and  a 
whole  series  of  the  books  that  we  call  historical 
are  named  prophetical  in  the  Hebrew  Canon  (§  3). 
To  a  certain  extent,  indeed,  the  books  are  arranged 
in  the   Canon   according  to  their  subjects,  for  we 
find,  e.g.,  all  the  law  books  together,  and  all  the 
prophetical  books  (if  we  exclude  Daniel)  in  succes- 
sion, while  a  series  of  books  relating  the  history 
from  the  occupation  of  Canaan  to  the   Babylonian 
captivity  (Joshua  to  2  Kings)  follow  one  another. 
And,  no  doubt,  it  was  out  of  regard  to  such  connec- 
tion, more  than  from  a  consideration  of  the  date  of 
their  composition,  that  they  were  so  arranged.     Yet 
we  have,  in   the   third   division  of  the  Canon,  the 
books  of  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Chronicles,  and  Esther, 
which  must  be  classed  as   historical.      Similarly, 
although  we  have   the   Psalms  in  one  collection, 
there  are  to  be  found   compositions  of  the   same 
character  in  other  books. 

I.    Our  English  Bible,  following  older  versions,  places 
Daniel  with  the  prophetical  books,  and  makes  the  books 

3 


34     OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

of  Chronicles,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah  follow  the  book  of 
Kings.      Compare  the  two  tables  in  §  3. 

§  22.  Even  if  we  could  arrange  the  books  accord- 
ing to  their  dates  of  composition  or  their  contents, 
there  would  be  one  great  practical  disadvantage  in 
the  arrangement.  At  the  foundation  of  the  regard 
which  we  pay  to  the  books  as  standards  of  faith, 
lies  the  fact  that  they  give,  in  a  connected  order, 
a  record  of  the  religious  history  and  life  of  the 
people  to  whom  was  committed  in  a  special  way  a 
revelation  of  God's  will,  and  who  were  specially 
guided  for  a  great  purpose,  which  in  their  own 
time  was  not  made  fully  manifest.  For  the  follow- 
ing of  such  a  history,  it  is  obvious  that  it  is  of 
secondary  importance  in  what  order  the  books 
were  written,  but  that  it  is  of  the  greatest  advan- 
tage to  begin  with  the  books  that  relate  to  the 
earliest  times,  and  to  proceed  according  to  the 
sequence  of  events.  This  is  the  way  we  study 
the  history  of  our  own  country  :  we  begin  with  a 
book  that  relates  to  the  earlier  period,  even  though 
that  book  may  have  been  composed  in  our  own 
day,  provided  only  that  the  book  is  based  on  the 
best  information  to  be  had  on  the  subject,  and 
written  as  far  as  possible  without  partisan  purpose. 
Now  in  the  Hebrew  Canon  the  books  lie  before 
us  in  this  order,  beginning  with  the  creation  and 
primeval  history,  and  coming  down  (in  2  Kings) 
to  the  extinction  of  the  Jewish  independent 
nationality.  And  though  there  are  historical 
books  in  the  third  division,  they  either  traverse 
the  same  history  (as  the  books  of  Chronicles),  or 
relate  to  the  period  after  the  exile  (as  Ezra  and 


GENERAL    VIE  W  OF  THE  BOOKS  35 

Nehemiah).  The  prophetical  books,  though  all 
placed  together,  can  in  the  main  be  assigned  to 
their  proper  historical  places  ;  and  the  book  of 
Daniel,  referring  to  a  late  period,  falls  without 
inconvenience  among  the  last  books.  The  order 
of  the  Hebrew  Canon  has  this  other  advantage, 
that  it  enables  us  to  look  at  books  in  the  groups 
in  which  they  have  been  from  ancient  time  arranged 
(such  as  the  twelve  minor  Prophets,  and  the  Five 
Rolls,  §  3).  We  shall,  therefore,  take  up  the 
several  books  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  order 
and  in  the  groups  in  which  they  have  been  handed 
down  in  the  Hebrew  Canon  (see  §  3). 


36     OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE    PENTATEUCH    AS    A    WHOLE 

§23.  The  first  five  books  of  the  Bible  were, 
from  the  earliest  date  at  which  we  hear  of  them, 
spoken  of  collectively  as  the  Law,  the  Book  of  the 
Law,  or  the  Law  of  Moses.1  The  whole  work,  so 
named,  must  have  been  early  arranged  in  the  five 
parts  in  which  it  now  appears,  for  it  is  so  divided 
in  the  Septuagint  version  (§  7).  The  word  Penta- 
teuch is  of  Greek  origin,  meaning  the  five-fold 
book  j  and  the  names  by  which  we  now  denote  the 
five  separate  books  were  first  given  in  Greek  to 
indicate  their  contents.  If  we  turn  over  the  pages 
of  these  books,  from  Genesis  to  Deuteronomy,  we 
shall  see  at  a  glance  a  great  variety  of  Contents. 
The  book  of  Genesis  begins  with  the  Creation  and 
primeval  times,  and  passes  on  to  patriarchal  life 
in  the  land  of  Canaan.  In  Exodus,  we  are  told  of 
the  hard  bondage  of  Israel  in  Egypt  ;  their  de- 
liverance under  Moses  and  Aaron  ;  the  giving  of 
the  Law  at  Sinai  and  the  setting  up  of  the  Taber- 
nacle. Leviticus  is  full  of  laws,  referring,  for  the 
most  part,  to  worship  and  ceremonial.  Numbers 
tells  of  the  wanderings  in  the  desert,  and  Deuter- 

1  See  Neh.  viii.  i,  2,  8,  14;  ix.  3,  etc.     Compare  Malachi  iv.  4. 


THE  PENTATEUCH  AS  A    WHOLE  37 

onomy  contains  the  farewell  addresses  of  Moses  to 
the  people,  as  they  were  about  to  enter  the  promised 
land.  The  time  covered  by  the  Pentateuch  thus 
extends  from  the  Creation  to  the  death  of  Moses. 

1.  The  five -fold  appearance  has  not  arisen  from  a 
merely  artificial  division.  Genesis  forms  a  piece  in 
itself,  and  so  does  Deuteronomy.  Leviticus  has  one  pre- 
vailing characteristic  throughout ;  while  the  opening 
words  of  Exodus  (Exod.  i.  1-7),  and  the  closing  words  of 
Numbers  (Num.  xxxvi.  13)  indicate  that  each  is  to  be 
regarded  as  complete  in  itself. 

2.  The  Jews  designate  the  Pentateuch  the  five-fifths  of 
the  Law,  and  at  first  they  gave  no  distinctive  names  to 
the  separate  books,  but  simply  indicated  them  by  their 
opening  words  "In  the  beginning"  (for  Genesis),  "These 
are  the  names "  (for  Exodus),  and  so  on.  At  a  later 
time  they  gave  them  Hebrew  titles,  such  as  "  Book  of 
the  Creation,"  "  Book  of  Damages,''  etc.,  to  denote  their 
contents. 

§  24.  Under  all  this  variety  of  contents,  we 
recognise  two  main  elements  of  which  the  Penta- 
teuch is  made  up.  (1)  The  first  is  history.  The 
Pentateuch  is  not  by  any  means  a  universal  history, 
though  it  begins  with  the  whole  human  race,  and 
speaks  of  the  countries  over  which  the  race  spread. 
Nor  does  it  even  carry  into  detail  many  of  the 
subjects  which  it  takes  up.  Yet  the  main  stream 
of  narrative  is  never  interrupted  ;  and  even  when 
we  lose  sight  of  it  for  a  time  under  other  interests, 
it  comes  up  again  and  flows  on  to  the  end.  (2) 
The  other  element  is  law,  and  this  feature  is  so 
prominent  in  the  books,  that  it  has  given  its  name 
to  the  whole  Pentateuch.  One  of  the  books 
(Leviticus)  is  entirely  composed  of  laws,  others 
(Exodus  and  Numbers)  have  laws  mixed  up  with 


38     OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

the  history,  and  another  (Deuteronomy)  has  laws 
incorporated  in  long  addresses.  Even  the  book  of 
Genesis,  which  is  mainly  narrative,  places  the  law 
of  marriage  and  the  Sabbath  in  primeval  times, 
gives  regulations  as  to  food  in  the  time  of  Noah, 
and  relates  the  institution  of  circumcision  in  the 
history  of  Abraham.  The  laws  embodied  in  the 
Pentateuch  relate  to  all  relations  of  life  ;  and  it  is 
to  be  observed  that  though  all  the  laws  on  one 
subject  are  not  always  placed  together,  the  whole 
of  the  legislation  of  the  Old  Testament  is  contained 
in  these  five  books. 

i.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  we  do  not  read  of  the 
Israelite  kings  enacting  laws.  The  isolated  cases  that 
occur  are  either  so  exceptional  as  to  prove  the  rule  {e.g. 
I  Sam.  xxx.  25),  or  represented  by  the  sacred  writers  as 
irregular  and  sinful  (1  Kings  xii.  26-33).  N°r  do  the 
prophets  legislate.  The  so-called  "programme"  of 
Ezekiel  (chaps,  xl.-xlviii. )  was  not  regarded  by  the  Jews 
who  re-organised  the  worship  of  the  second  Temple  as  a 
code  to  be  acted  upon  (see  below,  §  59). 

§  25.  Though  we  can  distinguish  these  two 
elements  running  like  two  streams  through  the 
books,  yet  they  combine  to  form  one  river  ;  for 
there  is  unity  and  plan  in  the  whole.  The  history 
is  not  intelligible  without  the  laws,  nor  the  laws 
apart  from  the  history  ;  for  there  is  one  aim 
kept  steadily  in  view  throughout,  as  we  can  see 
from  the  manner  in  which  each  succeeding  book 
takes  up  the  narrative  of  the  preceding.  From  the 
opening  chapters  of  Genesis,  we  might  indeed 
expect  that  the  books  are  to  give  us  a  history  of  the 
whole  human  race  ;  but  we  perceive,  as  we  read 
on,   that  the  purpose  is  quite  different.      Nations 


THE  PENTATEUCH  AS  A    WHOLE  39 

and  families  are  enumerated,  and  then  dismissed 
without  further  notice  ;  the  attention  being  made 
to  concentrate  upon  one  family — that  of  Abraham 
— with  whose  fortunes  it  is  evidently  the  design  of 
the  book  to  concern  itself.  This  family  is  repre- 
sented as  set  apart  in  a  peculiar  manner  from  the 
beginning  for  a  great  purpose  ;  and  it  is  towards 
the  fulfilment  of  that  purpose  that  the  Law  comes 
in,  as  a  means  of  separating  the  Israelites  from 
other  peoples,  and  educating  them  for  the  mission 
they  are  to  execute  in  the  world.  It  is  plainly  the 
nation  of  Israel  that  is  in  view  throughout,  and 
that  nation  as  under  special  Divine  training  ;  and 
the  Pentateuch  exhibits  the  first  stage  of  the  history 
and  the  first  steps  of  the  training,  up  to  the  point 
when  the  people  are  ready  to  enter  the  land  of 
Canaan,  which  had  been  assigned  to  them  as  their 
dwelling-place. 

1.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  foreign  nations  that  are 
mentioned,  however  briefly,  in  the  early  books,  are 
peoples  who  became  at  a  later  time  Israel's  near  neigh- 
bours (as  Canaan,  Edom,  Moab,  etc.),  or  who  exercised 
a  powerful  influence  on  the  national  history  (as  Egypt, 
Assyria,  and  Babylon). 


4o     OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE    BOOKS    OF    THE    PENTATEUCH 

§26.  BEFORE  considering  the  literary  manner  in 
which  the  Pentateuch  is  composed  and  estimating 
its  importance  as  a  part  of  the  sacred  history,  we 
must  look  at  the  contents  of  the  five  books  of  which 
it  is  made  up,  and  see  how  they  exhibit  the  suc- 
cessive steps  of  the  progress  that  is  to  be  described. 

GENESIS 

The  name  given  to  this  book  is  Greek,  signifying 
origi?i  or  genealogy,  and  it  conveniently  designates 
the  book  which  speaks  of  the  origin  of  the  world 
and  of  mankind,  and  exhibits  the  genealogy  of  the 
chosen  race.  The  contents  fall  naturally  into  two 
great  divisions:  (1)  primeval  history  (chaps,  i.- 
xi.),  beginning  with  the  origin  of  all  things  at 
the  hand  of  God.  Here  Ave  are  told  of  the  entrance 
of  sin,  and  the  spread  of  evil,  leading  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Flood.  Then  there  is  a  new  expansion 
of  the  race  in  the  family  of  Noah,  and  a  new  growth 
of  evil,  culminating  in  the  judgment  of  Babel  ;  and 
through  the  genealogy  of  Shem  the  line  is  traced 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH        41 

down  to  Terah,  the  father  of  Abraham,  with  whom 
begins  (2)  the  patriarchal  history,  extending  from 
chap.  xii.  to  the  end.  In  this  division  the  con- 
necting bond  is  the  promise  to  Abraham  and  the 
covenant  based  upon  it,  the  unfolding  of  which  is 
exhibited  in  the  histories  of  Isaac  and  Jacob,  and 
the  rise  of  the  twelve  tribes.  This  sketch  of  the 
contents  already  indicates  the  plan  of  the  book, 
and  a  closer  examination  shows  how  the  plan  is 
wrought  out.  It  becomes  apparent  that  the  details 
of  the  opening  chapters  are  not  fragments  of  folk- 
lore, put  down  to  satisfy  curiosity,  but  that  they 
are  designed  to  form  an  introduction  to  the  history 
which  is  to  follow,  by  exhibiting  the  world  and  all 
the  movements  of  mankind  as  under  the  guidance 
of  the  one  God,  and  even  man's  sin  as  controlled 
by  Him  for  the  furtherance  of  one  great  end.  The 
gradual  narrowing  of  the  view  from  all  the  races  of 
mankind  to  the  family  of  Abraham,  shows  how 
this  end  is  to  be  secured  ;  and  the  increasing 
clearness  of  the  promise,  and  the  greater  definite- 
ness  of  the  calling  of  the  chosen  race,  are  observable 
from  step  to  step.  The  book  begins  with  God  ; 
and  at  its  close,  when  Jacob  and  his  family  go 
down  to  Egypt,  we  are  conscious  that  a  great 
Divine  purpose  is  bound  up  in  their  history.  The 
keynote  of  the  whole  is  promise.  See  xii.  1-3,  7  ; 
xiii.  15  ;  xv.  18  ;  xvii.  8.  Also,  in  the  earlier 
part,  iii.   15;  viii.  21,  22;   ix.   11-17. 

1.  The  expression  "these  are  the  generations"  (i.e. 
genealogies^  occurs  ten  (or,  strictly  speaking,  eleven) 
times  in  the  book,  serving  to  connect  the  various  steps 
in  the  history,  and  indicating  also  how  the  interest  is 
concentrated  from  step  to  step.      The  passages  are  : — 


42     OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

Chap.    ii.    4.  Heavens  and  earth.  Chap.  xi.     27.  Terah. 

v.     1.  Adam.  xxv.     12.  Ishmael. 

vi.    g.  Noah.  xxv.     19.  Isaac. 

x.     1.   Sons  of  Noah.  xxxvi.  i,  9.  Esau, 

xi.  10.  Shem.  xxxvii.      2.  Jacob. 

EXODUS 

§  27.  The  name  of  this  book  is  also  Greek  and 
indicates  the  most  striking  event  recorded  in  it — 
the  departure  of  Israel  from  Egypt.  In  form  and 
contents  the  book  differs  remarkably  from  Genesis ; 
as  it  deals  no  longer  with  a  family  but  with  a 
people,  and,  instead  of  a  continuous  narrative,  we 
have  now  a  combination  of  history  and  law.  Yet 
a  thread  of  narrative  runs  through  the  whole,  by 
the  aid  of  which  we  can  mark  these  two  great 
divisions  according  to  the  stages  of  the  history  : — 

(a)  The  departure  from  Egypt  (chaps,  i.-xviii.) 

(b)  The  giving  of  the  Law  at  Sinai  (xix.-xl.) 
And  though  the  literary  arrangement  of  the  book 
does  not  seem  to  be  studied,  the  aim  is  never  once 
lost  sight  of.  It  is  the  God  of  the  patriarchs  that 
interposes  for  His  people,  and  the  Law  is  based 
on  the  Covenant  made  with  Abraham. 

The  keynote  of  the  first  part  is  given  in  vi.  1-8, 
that  of  the  second  in  xix.  1-6. 

1.  In  the  first  part  the  main  points  are  :  the  oppres- 
sion of  the  Israelites,  the  birth,  early  life,  and  appoint- 
ment of  Moses  (i.-iv.)  ;  the  struggle  with  Pharaoh  and 
the  infliction  of  the  plagues  (v.-x.),  with  the  tenth  and 
last  of  which  are  connected  the  institution  of  the  Passover, 
and  the  Sanctification  of  the  first-born  (xi.-xiii.  16)  ;  the 
passage  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  journey  to  Elim  (xiii. 
17-xv.  27)  ;  the  giving  of  the  manna  (xvi.);  the  victory 
over  Amalek  (xvii.)  ;  and  the  visit  of  Jelhro  to  Moses 
(xviii.) 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH        43 

In  the  second  part,  the  condition  of  the  covenant  being 
laid  down  and  accepted  by  the  people,  the  law  is  declared 
and  solemnly  ratified  over  the  "book  of  the  Covenant  " 
(xix.  i-xxiv.  S)  ;  Moses,  during  his  stay  of  forty  days  in 
the  Mount,  receives  the  Tables  of  Stone  and  instructions 
for  the  Tabernacle  (xxiv.  9-xxxi.  18);  he  intercedes  for 
the  people  who  had,  in  his  absence,  made  the  Golden 
Calf ;  God  reveals  Himself  as  the  Merciful  and  Righteous 
One,  and  renews  the  Table  and  Covenant  (xxxii.-xxxiv.)  ; 
and  the  preparation  and  setting  up  of  the  Tabernacle  are 
fully  described  (xxxv. -xl. ) 

2.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  narrative  does  not  begin 
where  Genesis  stopped,  but  a  very  long  interval  is  passed 
Over  without  record  (compare  Gen.  xv.  13;  Exod.  xii.  40), 
for  the  family  of  Jacob  is  now  a  numerous  nation.  The 
date  to  which  the  history  is  brought  down  at  the  end  of 
the  book  is  the  first  day  of  the  first  month  of  the  second 
year  from  the  Exodus  (see  xvi.  1 ;  xix.  1 ;  xl.  2,  17). 

LEVITICUS 

§  28.  The  name  (derived  from  the  Greek)  which 
is  applied  to  this  book  has  reference  to  the  Leviti- 
cal,  or  rather  priestly  regulations  of  which  the 
book  is  chiefly  composed.  The  Levites  are  only 
once  incidentally  mentioned  (xxv.  32,  33)*;  but  the 
priests  are  continually  referred  to  ;  and  the  laws 
of  this  book,  which  are  mostly  of  a  ceremonial 
character,  are  such  as  would  form  a  handbook  to 
them  in  the  performance  of  their  functions.  The 
principle  laid  down  in  Exodus  (xix.  1-6)  that  Israel 
was  to  be  "  a  kingdom  of  priests  and  an  holy 
nation,"  is  here  carried  out  into  detail.  The  key- 
note of  the  whole  is  "  Ye  shall  be  holy  ;  for  I  the 
Lord  your  God  am  holy"  (Lev.  xix.  2). 

I.    The  contents  may  be  thus  arranged  : — 


44     OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

(a)  The  Laws  of  Offerings,  viz.  the  Burnt  Offering  (i.), 
the  Meal1  Offering  (ii.),  the  Peace  Offering  (iii. ),  the 
Sin  Offering  (iv.-v.  13),  the  Trespass  Offering  (v.  14-vii. ) 

{b)  The  consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons,  and  the 
punishment  of  Nadab  and  Abihu  (viii.-x. ) 

(c)  Laws  relating  to  foods  (xi. ),  defilement  (xii.-xv.), 
the  Day  of  Atonement  (xvi.) 

(d)  A  collection  of  laws  on  various  subjects,  often 
described  as  the  "  Law  of  Holiness"  (xvii.-xxvi. ) 

(e)  An  appendix  on  vows,  tithes,  and  things  devoted 
(xxvii.) 

2.  As  to  the  arrangement,  it  is  noticeable  that  while 
a  definite  order  is  observed  in  some  sections,  as  in  chaps, 
i.  -vii.,  and  a  recurring  expression  or  dominating  idea 
gives  unity  to  others  (as  "be  ye  holy"  in  xvii.-xxvi.), 
laws  relating  to  the  same  or  similar  subjects  are  not 
always  placed  together  ;  and  even  the  same  laws  are 
found  repeated  in  different  parts  of  the  book.  The  im- 
pression made  by  the  whole  is  that  of  a  collection  of 
smaller  collections,  or  of  a  collection  added  to  from  time 
to  time. 

3.  If  we  compare  Exod.  xl.  17  with  Num.  x.  11,  it 
will  appear  that  the  whole  period  between  the  setting 
up  of  the  Tabernacle  and  the  departure  from  Sinai  was 
only  a  month  and  twenty  days.  This  would  make  it 
probable  that,  just  as  Moses  carried  out  in  detail  the 
arrangements  of  the  Tabernacle  after  the  pattern  that 
was  shown  him  in  the  Mount  (Exod.  xxv.  40  ;  xxvi.  30  ; 
xxvii.  8),  so  we  have  here  in  detail  the  regulations  for 
the  worship  and  life  of  the  people,  which  he  was  in- 
structed to  give, — set  down  as  they  were  called  forth,  and 
preserved  in  this  fragmentary  form. 

NUMBERS 
§  29.   The   name  of  this  book,  which   is  trans- 

1  So  the  K.V.  rightly  renders  the  word  denoting  the  bloodless 
offering,  which  in  the  A.V.  was  translated  meat  offering. 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH        45 

lated  from  the  Greek,  was  applied  with  reference 
to  the  two  7iumberings  of  the  people  which  it 
relates, — at  Sinai  (i.)  and  in  the  plains  of  Moab 
(xxvi.)  Whereas  Leviticus  is  entirely  made  up  of 
laws,  this  book,  like  Exodus,  is  in  contents  partly 
historical  and  partly  legislative  ;  but  it  is  closely 
connected  with  Leviticus  and  forms  its  natural 
continuation.  It  covers  a  long  period  of  time  ; 
for,  if  we  deduct  the  fourteen  months  spent  on  the 
journey  from  Egypt  and  in  the  stay  at  Sinai  (see 
§  27,  2,  and  §  28,  3),  the  whole  of  the  remaining 
portion  of  the  forty  years  of  the  wilderness  life  is 
embraced  in  it.  We  may,  accordingly,  divide  the 
book  into  three  sections  : — 

(a)  At  Sinai  (as  in  Leviticus),  chaps,  i.-x.  10. 

{b)   From  Sinai  to  Moab,  x.  11-xxii.  1. 

{c)   In  the  plains  of  Moab,  xxii.  2-xxxvi. 

1.  In  the  first  section,  which  begins  exactly  a  month 
after  the  setting  up  of  the  Tabernacle  (comp.  i.  1  with 
Exod.  xl.  17),  we  have  an  account  of  the  numbering  of 
the  tribes,  with  the  order  in  which  they  were  to  march 
and  encamp,  and  also  the  arrangements  for  the  service 
of  the  Levites  (i.-iv. )  ;  followed  by  regulations  for  lepers, 
restitution  for  trespass,  the  water  of  jealousy,  Nazirites, 
and  the  form  for  the  blessing  of  the  people  (v.,  vi.)  We 
have  then  an  account  of  what  took  place  at  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  Tabernacle  (vii.,  viii.),  of  the  observance  of  the 
Passover  (ix. ),  and  of  the  guidance  of  the  people  by  the 
pillar  of  cloud  and  the  silver  trumpets  (ix.,  x.) 

The  second  section  covers  the  period  from  the  twentieth 
day  of  the  second  month  of  the  second  year  to  the  fortieth 
year  of  the  Exodus.  It  contains,  not  a  connected  history 
but  a  series  of  incidents  in  the  wilderness  life,  as  the 
murmurings  (xi.-xiv. ),  the  revolt  and  punishment  of 
Korah  and  his  company  (xvi. ,  xvii.),  with  various  laws 
interspersed   (in  chaps,  xv.  xviii.  xix.)  ;  ending  with  an 


46     OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

account  of  the  journey  from  Kadesh  round  Edom  into 
the  plains  of  Moab,  in  the  course  of  which  we  have  the 
episodes  of  the  unbelief  of  Moses  and  Aaron  at  Meribah, 
and  the  sending  of  the  fiery  serpents  (xx.,  xxi.) 

The  third  section  (whose  scene  is  in  the  plains  of  Moab), 
relates  the  story  of  Balaam  (xxii.  2-xxiv.  25),  the  idolatry 
at  Shittim  (xxv. ),  the  numbering  of  the  people  (xxvi. ), 
the  appointment  of  Joshua  (xxvii.  12-23),  and  regulations 
for  the  territory  of  the  eastern  tribes,  for  the  division  of 
the  whole  land,  and  for  the  setting  apart  of  cities  of  the 
Levites  and  cities  of  refuge  (xxxii.-xxxv.)  Here  again 
we  have,  interspersed,  a  number  of  laws  on  various  sub- 
jects (xxvii.  I  -I  I  ;  xxviii. -xxx.  ;  xxxiii.  50-56;  xxxvi.), 
besides  a  chapter  on  the  encounter  with  the  Midianites 
(xxxi. ),  and  a  list  of  the  wilderness  stations  (xxxiii.  1-49). 


DEUTERONOMY 

§  30.  The  name  given  to  this  book  signifies 
repetition  of  the  laiu,  being,  in  English  form,  the 
Greek  word  which  was  employed  as  a  translation 
of  the  expression  "copy  (i.e.  duplicate)  of  this 
law,"  in  chap.  xvii.  18.  It  should  not,  however, 
be  taken  to  imply  that  in  this  book  we  have  merely 
a  repetition  of  laws  already  given  in  preceding 
books.  The  scene  of  the  book  is  in  the  plains  of 
Moab,  as  at  the  close  of  Numbers  ;  and  if  we 
compare  chap.  i.  3  with  Josh.  iv.  19,  and  deduct 
30  days  for  the  mourning  after  the  death  of  Moses 
(Deut.  xxxiv.  8),  it  will  appear  that  only  40  days 
are  left  for  the  events  related  in  this  book.  The 
book  is  unlike  any  of  those  that  precede  it ;  for, 
though  it  contains  a  certain  amount  of  legislation, 
the  connecting  link  is  not  history  but  a  series  of 
addresses.       Instead   of   the    familiar  expression 


THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH        47 

"  The  Lord  spake  unto  Moses,"  it  is  now  Moses 
who  speaks  to  the  assembled  people.  Deuteronomy 
rests  upon  the  preceding  books,  however,  not  only 
by  recalling  or  taking  for  granted  the  events  which 
they  record,  but  by  emphasising  what  is  the  key- 
note of  the  whole, — God's  choice  of  Israel  to  be  a 
holy  people  to  Himself  (see  chaps,  vii.  6-8  ;  x.  15). 

I.  Th^Jirst  address  (i. -iv.  40)  sets  forth  God's  care  in 
the  past  as  a  motive  for  obedience  to  His  Laws. 

The  second  address  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  book, 
extending  to  the  end  of  chap.  xxvi. ;  and  chap.  iv.  44  seems 
to  form  a  sort  of  introduction  to  it.  The  first  part  of  this 
address  (to  the  end  of  chap.  xi. )  contains  the  Decalogue, 
with  a  recital  of  the  circumstances  under  which  the  cove- 
nant was  made  at  Horeb.  The  second  part  (from  chap, 
xii.)  contains  the  "statutes  and  judgements"  to  be  ob- 
served in  the  promised  land. 

A  third  address  begins  at  chap,  xxvii.,  providing  for 
the  writing  of  the  law  on  plastered  stones  on  Mount  Ebal, 
and  the  solemn  taking  of  the  covenant.  In  chap,  xxviii. 
we  have  the  blessing  and  the  curse  which  are  to  follow 
the  keeping  or  the  breaking  of  the  covenant,  and  in  the 
next  two  chapters  an  exhortation  to  its  faithful  observance. 
Chap.  xxxi.  relates  the  commission  to  Joshua,  the  delivery 
of  the  Law  to  the  priests  and  elders  with  a  charge  to  read 
it  once  in  seven  years  to  the  assembled  people.  We 
have  then  the  "Song  of  Moses"  (xxxii.),  recounting  all 
God's  deeds  for  His  people,  which  is  to  be  handed  down 
as  a  witness  to  succeeding  generations  ;  followed  by  the 
"blessing"  of  Moses — also  in  poetical  form  (xxxiii.)  ; 
and  a  brief  chapter,  in  exalted  terms,  relating  how  the 
law-giver  viewed  the  land  he  was  not  to  enter,  and 
"  died  there  in  the  land  of  Moab,  according  to  the  word 
of  the  Lord  "  (xxxiv. ) 


OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   IX 
COMPOSITION    OF    THE   PENTATEUCH 

§  31.  The  five  books  composing  the  Pentateuch 
are  usually  designated  the  books  of  Moses,  as  in 
our  English  Bibles,  although  they  are  not  so 
named  in  the  original.  The  reasons  for  this  are 
obvious  :  (a)  It  was  through  him  that  the  Law 
was  given,  which  forms  the  most  prominent  part 
of  the  contents  of  the  books,  {b)  He  was  the 
greatest  figure  in  the  history  at  the  time  when  Israel 
became  a  nation,  and  lived  through  the  events 
which  form  a  great  part  of  the  record  ;  and  (c)  he 
is  explicitly  said  to  have  written  down  certain 
things  recorded  in  the  books.  It  was,  therefore,  a 
natural  thing  to  ascribe  to  one  who  had  such  an 
influence  on  law  and  history,  the  writing  of  this 
book  which  contains  both  history  and  law. 

I.  The  Pentateuch,  like  the  great  majority  of  the  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  is  of  anonymous  composition. 
The  passages  in  which  Moses  is  distinctly  said  to  have 
written  something  are  :  Exod.  xvii.  14  ;  xxiv.  4,  7  ; 
xxxiv.  27;  Num.  xxxiii.  I,  2;  Deut.  xxxi.  9-11,  22, 
24-26.  Compare  Josh.  i.  7,  8  ;  viii.  31,  34  ;  xxiii.  6  ; 
xxiv.  26. 


COMPOSITION  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH      49 

2.  It  cannot  now  be  denied  that  the  art  of  writing  was 
practised  in  the  time  of  Moses,  and  that  he  may  have 
written  all  that  is  ascribed  to  him.  Not  only  was  literary 
composition  common  in  Egypt  before  his  day,  but  recent 
discoveries  have  proved  that  in  Palestine  also  the  art  of 
writing  (though  in  a  different  character  from  the  Hebrew) 
was  carried  on  before  the  Exodus.  The  Old  Testament 
itself  gives  no  hint  of  the  time  at  which  writing  was  intro- 
duced among  the  Hebrews.  There  is  no  mention  of  it 
in  the  story  of  the  purchase  of  the  field  of  Ephron  by 
Abraham  (Gen.  xxiii. ),  where  we  would  expect  it  if  it  had 
been  known  ;  but  from  the  time  of  Moses  onwards  it  is 
spoken  of  as  a  matter  of  course.  See  the  following 
passages  :  Jud.  viii.  14  ?narg.;  2  Sam.  viii.  16,  17  ;  xi. 
14,  15  ;  xx.  24,  25.  Compare  also  Isaiah  viii.  1  ;  x. 
19  ;  xxix.  11,  12. 

3.  The  "tradition"  of  the  Jews  which  ascribes  to 
Moses  the  writing  of  the  Pentateuch  (except  the  closing 
verses  of  Deuteronomy)  appears  for  the  first  time  at  so 
late  a  date  that  reliance  cannot  be  placed  upon  it.  It  is 
conjoined  with  traditions  as  to  the  composition  of  the 
other  books  which  are  manifestly  the  result  of  conjecture. 

§  32.  From  the  time,  however,  that  a  closer 
study  was  made  of  the  language  and  literary  form 
of  the  Pentateuch,  the  conviction  grew  that  the 
whole  could  not  have  come,  in  its  existing  form, 
from  the  hand  of  Moses.  The  chief  arguments 
against  the  Mosaic  authorship  are  these :  (a) 
There  are  certainly  portions  which  he  could  ?wt  have 
written  (see  1  below),  (fi)  Though  there  is  a  plan 
in  the  whole,  the  character  and  arra?igement  of  the 
parts  do  not  favour  the  idea  of  unity  of  authorship 
(see  2  below),  (c)  Different  parts  exhibit  different 
literary  styles  (see  3  below),  (d)  Other  historical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  show  that  the  authors 
freely  incorporated   the  composition  of   others  in 


50     OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

their  works,  and  there  is  a  presumption  that  the 
Pentateuch  was  composed  in  the  same  manner 
(see  4  below). 

i  (Under  a).  The  account  of  Moses'  death  (Deut. 
xxxiv. )  gives  no  indication  that  it  was  written  by  another 
hand  than  that  which  composed  the  rest  of  the  book 
(compare  Deut.  xxxiii.  I,  "before  his  death").  And 
there  are  many  other  passages  which  can  only  be  ascribed 
to  him  by  a  very  forced  explanation.  See,  e.g.,  Gen.  xii. 
6  ;  xiii.  7  ;  xxxvi.  31  ;  Exod.  xvi.  35  (compare  Josh.  v. 
12)  ;  Levit.  xviii.  24-28  ;  Num.  xv.  32-36 ;  Deut.  ii. 
12  ;  iii.   11,  14  (compare  Jud.  x.  3,  4). 

2  (Under  b).  There  are  two  passages,  e.g.,  referring  to 
the  Creation  :  Gen.  i.  i-ii.  4,  and  Gen.  ii.  4-25  ;  but 
the  second  has  not  the  appearance  of  being  simply  an 
additional  description  by  the  person  who  wrote  the  first. 
So  in  the  account  of  the  Flood  there  seem  to  be  two  narra- 
tives combined  (compare  Gen.  vi.  14  to  end,  with  vii.  1 
ff. )  For  other  repeated  accounts,  varying  in  details,  com- 
pare Gen.  xxviii.  19  with  xxxv.  9-15;  Gen.  xxxv.  10  with 
xxxii.  28  ;  Gen.  xxvi.  34  and  xxviii.  9  with  xxxvi.  2-5. 
And  for  the  laws,  compare  Exod.  xxiii.  17-19  with  xxxiv. 
23-26  ;  and  Exod.  xxii.  21  with  xxiii.  9.  As  to  arrange- 
ment of  parts,  note  how  the  section  beginning  at  Exod. 
vi.  2  takes  no  account  of  the  section  preceding  it  (iii. -v.)  ; 
and  compare  Exod.  vi.  30  with  iv.   10,  etc. 

3  (Under  c).  The  English  reader  is  in  a  position  to 
observe  one  remarkable  peculiarity  of  style.  In  the 
opening  portion  of  Genesis  (Gen.  i.  i-ii.  3)  the  Creator 
is  called  God  (which  is  the  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
word  Elohim) ;  in  chap.  iv.  He  is  called  the  Lord  (which 
is  the  translation  of  Jehovah)  ;  whereas  from  chap.  ii.  4 
to  iii.  24  we  find  the  two  names  the  Lord  God  com- 
bined. It  will  also  be  observed  that  in  the  account  of 
the  Flood  (Gen.  vi.-viii.)  sometimes  the  one  name  is 
used,  and  sometimes  the  other.  There  are  other  varia- 
tions of  style,  not  so  apparent  to  the  English  reader, 
which  characterise  different  portions,  and  these  are  found 


COMPOSITION  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH      51 

for  the  most  part  to  run  in  the  several  passages  that  vary 
in  the  use  of  the  Divine  name. 

4  (Under  d).  By  a  comparison  of  the  books  of 
Chronicles  (which  are  late)  with  those  of  Kings,  we  find 
that  a  later  writer  had  no  hesitation  in  using,  without 
mentioning  the  fact,  the  accounts  or  materials  of  former 
writers.  Compare  2  Chron.  i.  3-13  with  1  Kings  iii.  4-15  ; 
2  Chron.  ii.  I -1 8  with  I  Kings  v.  1-18  ;  2  Chron.  iii. 
with  I  Kings  vi.  ;  2  Chron.  vii.  11-viii.  18  with  I  Kings 
ix.  Also  compare  2  Chron.  xxii.  10-xxiii.  21  with  2 
Kings  xi.  ;  and  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  8-28  with  2  Kings  xxii. 
An  examination  of  the  books  succeeding  the  Penta- 
teuch leads  to  the  conclusion  that  they  all  more  or  less 
did  the  same.  And  the  Pentateuch  itself  contains  pieces 
which  seem  to  have  a  separate  origin, — incorporated  in  its 
pages  (see  Exod.  xv.  1  ff.,  Num.  xxi.  14-15,  17-18,  27). 

§  33.  Such  considerations  as  have  just  been 
mentioned  have  led  to  the  conclusion,  which  is 
now  generally  accepted,  that  the  Pentateuch  is  of 
composite  character.  That  is  to  say,  instead  of 
each  book  having  been  written  as  an  original  com- 
position by  itself,  there  are  found  to  be,  running 
through  the  books,  certain  component  parts, 
distinguishable  by  certain  characteristics,  and 
capable  of  being,  to  a  certain  extent,  read  by 
themselves  ;  and  all  these  have  been  so  arranged 
and  united  as  to  form  the  existing  Pentateuch. 
But  as  to  the  original  writers  of  the  several  parts, 
the  manner  in  which  they  were  preserved,  and  the 
time  and  mode  of  their  union,  it  is  found  possible 
to  hold  very  different  opinions. 

1.  The  recurring  "genealogies"  which  serve  to  con- 
nect the  various  steps  in  the  narrative  of  Genesis,  have 
been  already  referred  to  (§  26,  1).  The  passages  so 
introduced  can  be  collected  into  a  fairly  continuous  series  ; 


52     OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

and  it  will  be  found  that  the  pieces  written  in  that  style, 
besides  their  fondness  for  dates  and  precision  in  numbers, 
show  also  a  delight  in  tracing,  to  their  source,  religious 
institutions,  such  as  the  law  of  the  Sabbath  (Gen.  ii.  I -3), 
the  rite  of  circumcision  (xvii.  10,  11),  the  prohibition  of 
blood  (ix.  4).  Hence  these  parts  are  often  spoken  of  as 
priestly  in  their  character,  and  with  them  are  classed  the 
majority  of  the  laws  in  Leviticus,  and  also  those  in 
Exodus  and  Numbers  which  are  of  a  ceremonial  or 
priestly  kind.  In  other  parts,  again,  the  style  is  more 
diffuse  and  flowing,  and  characterised  by  the  use  of 
expressions  and  modes  of  thought  which  have  led  modern 
writers  to  speak  of  them  as  prophetic.  The  style  of 
Deuteronomy,  again,  is,  for  the  most  part,  quite  different 
from  that  of  either  of  these. 

2.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  narrative  of  Genesis 
closes  at  a  date  about  400  years  before  Moses.  But 
though  the  materials  of  that  book  have  all  the  appearance 
of  having  been  carefully  preserved  and  put  together  in 
the  common  method  of  Hebrew  writers,  we  have  no 
information  as  to  how  they  were  preserved  or  who  put 
them  together.  Genesis  says  nothing  of  its  own  author- 
ship. 

3.  Opinions  differ  widely  as  to  the  respective  dates  of 
various  parts  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  were  brought  together.  Into  these  questions  it  is 
impossible  here  to  enter.  The  features  of  the  language, 
which  point  to  differences  of  source,  do  not  indicate  the 
relative  dates  ;  and,  for  all  that  we  know,  portions  that 
have  different  literary  characteristics  may  belong  to  the 
same  or  nearly  the  same  periods.  Other  grounds,  on 
which  attempts  have  been  made  to  determine  the  dates, 
are  so  debatable  that  the  conclusions  are  very  uncertain  : 
and  there  is  a  tendency  to  multiply  sources  unnecessarily, 
and  to  define  their  relations  with  a  precision  that  cannot 
be  accepted  with  any  degree  of  confidence.  In  particular, 
the  methods  generally  employed  by  those  who  advocate 
a  very  late  date  of  large  parts  of  the  Pentateuch,  are 
open  to  the  objections,  that  they  underrate  the  literary 


COMPOSITION  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH     53 

attainments  and  religious  standing  of  earlier  times,  or 
undervalue  the  insight  and  guidance  possessed  by  the 
sacred  writers,  or  even  do  violence  to  the  documents,  by 
attributing  to  the  authors  a  mode  of  writing  history 
which  seems  artificial,  and  inconsistent  with  the  manifest 
honesty  and  simplicity  of  purpose  which  they  display. 
See  also  §  91,  5. 

4.  It  is  not  possible  to  frame  a  systematic  chrono- 
logy Of  the  Pentateuch.  The  numbers  given  in  the 
early  chapters  of  Genesis  differ  in  the  Septuagint  version 
and  in  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  from  those  of  the 
Hebrew  text  and  also  from  one  another  ;  thus  : — 

Years  from  Adam  to  the  Flood 
From  the  Flood  to  Terah's  70th  year 

1948  3314  2249 
As  to  the  period  of  Abram,  the  foreign  names  men- 
tioned in  Gen.  xiv.  suggest  a  comparison  with  names 
occurring  in  ancient  monuments  ;  but  they  are  not  yet 
sufficiently  identified.  His  date  is  usually  placed  about 
B.C.  2000.  It  is  now  very  generally  believed  that  the 
Pharaoh  of  the  oppression  was  Ramses  II.  of  the  19th 
dynasty,  who  reigned  sixty-seven  years,  and  is  known 
from  Egyptian  monuments  to  have  erected  extensive 
works  such  as  are  mentioned  in  Exodus  i.  11.  The 
Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus  would,  in  that  case,  be  Menephtah 
II.,  who  came  to  the  throne  about  B.C.  1325.  See 
below  §  35  and  footnote. 


Heb. 

LXX. 

Sam. 

1656 

2242 

i3°7 

292 

1072 

942 

54     OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    X 


THE  PENTATEUCH  AS  A  PART  OF  THE  BIBLE 

§34.  The  value  of  the  Pentateuch  as  a  part 
of  the  Bible  does  not  depend  upon  our  knowledge 
of  its  authorship  and  mode  of  composition,  but  on 
its  truthfulness  as  a  historical  document  and  on  the 
place  it  occupies  in  connection  with  the  whole 
Divine  plan  of  revelation  ;  and  in  regard  to  these  it 
may  be  tested  in  various  ways.  In  the  first  place, 
looked  at  by  itself,  it  exhibits  :  {a)  the  greatest 
care  in  the  preservation  of  the  earliest  national 
records  and  traditions  ;  (b)  thorough  honesty  in 
recording  events,  without  exaggeration  of  virtues 
or  palliation  of  sins  ;  and  (c)  a  pervading  high 
religious  tone,  in  contrast  with  the  mythical  early 
histories  of  other  nations.  The  whole  gives  us  the 
impression  of  a  people  under  a  special  religious 
guidance,  and  of  an  impartial  writing  of  history 
under  the  serious  consciousness  of  such  guidance. 

1.  The  preservation  of  separate  documents  and 
accounts  not  only  is  an  evidence  of  pious  care,  but  en- 
hances the  credibility  of  the  whole  by  exhibiting  the 
testimony  of  various  witnesses.  The  English  reader  is 
quite  competent  to  judge  whether  the  different  sources, 
however  they  may  be  multiplied,  are  in  material   points 


PENTATEUCH  AS  PART  OF  THE  BIBLE     55 

inconsistent  with  one  another.  Like  the  four  Gospels  in 
the  New  Testament,  they  present  the  same  truth  from 
different  sides  ;  and  they  exhibit  a  wonderful  unity  of 
purpose  and  identity  of  spiritual  position. 

2.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  greater  number  of 
the  Old  Testament  books  are  anonymous,  and  therefore 
their  value  is  to  be  tested  by  considerations  such  as  those 
mentioned  in  this  chapter. 

§  35.  In  the  second  place,  the  Pentateuch  may 
be  looked  at  in  the  light  of  modern  discovery, 
and  its  statements  brought  face  to  face  with  ascer- 
tained facts  in  history,  archaeology,  and  science. 
At  the  present  day  we  have  much  fuller  knowledge 
than  was  possessed  at  a  comparatively  recent  time 
in  regard  to  (a)  the  topography  of  the  lands  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible  ;  (b)  the  history  of  early  times, 
and  (V)  the  origin  of  the  visible  universe.  And 
it  may  be  affirmed  that  the  progress  of  discovery, 
so  far  from  tending  to  discredit  the  Bible  writers, 
has  often  confirmed  their  statements  in  a  most 
remarkable  manner.1 

1.  The  topography  of  the  Holy  Land,  of  Egypt,  and  of 
the  Desert  of  Sinai,  has  been  very  specially  examined  in 
connection  with  the  sacred  writings,  and  at  every  step  of 
the  examination  the  accuracy  and  fidelity  of  the  record 
have  been  more  clearly  exhibited. 

2.  The  monuments  of  Egypt  and  Assyria  have  not 
only  added  greatly  to  our  knowledge  of  early  times,  but 
have  confirmed  the  scanty  details  contained  in  the  Penta- 
teuch. In  our  own  clay  there  have  been  discovered  monu- 
ments illustrating,  in  a  remarkable  way,  the  statements  of 
Gen.  xiv.,  a  chapter  so  unlike  in  its  literary  features  to 

1  For  particulars  on  this  subject,  see  Recent  Explorations  in 
Bible  Lands,  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Nicol,  D.D.,  and  Light  from 
Eastern  Lands,  by  the  Rev.  A.  Williamson. 


56     OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

the  other  portions  of  the  book,  that  some  daring  critics 
pronounced  it  entirely  legendary. 

3.  Geology  and  Astronomy  have  enlarged  our  ideas  as 
to  the  formation  of  the  earth  and  the  solar  system.  And 
though  the  book  of  Genesis  was  not  written  to  teach 
science,  and  would  have  been  unintelligible  to  its  first 
readers  if  it  had  spoken  in  scientific  terms,  yet  its  state- 
ments agree  with  the  ascertained  facts  of  science  in  a 
way  with  which  the  cosmogonies  of  ancient  nations  have 
nothing  to  compare.  If  the  Hebrew  writers  have  thus 
preserved  so  pure  an  account  of  the  manner  in  which  God 
formed  the  material  world,  we  may  give  all  the  more 
credence  to  them  when  they  speak  of  God's  dealings  with 
man  in  history,  which  is  their  main  theme. 

§  36.  Thirdly,  the  Pentateuch  may  be  looked  at 
in  the  light  of  other  Scriptures ;  and  it  will  be 
found  that  all  the  succeeding  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  proceed  on  these  two  assumptions : 
(a)  That  the  early  history  of  the  chosen  people 
was  such  as  the  Pentateuch  describes  ;  and  {b) 
that  from  the  time  of  Moses  they  had  laws  and 
ordinances  such  as  the  Pentateuch  contains.  So 
(c)  the  New  Testament  not  only  assumes  the  truth 
of  the  history  contained  in  these  books,  but  rests 
upon  it  as  the  basis  of  the  revelation  completed 
in  the  Gospel. 

1.  In  estimating  the  testimony  to  the  Pentateuch  given 
by  the  succeeding  books,  two  things  are  to  be  borne  in 
mind  :  (a)  That  books  must  have  been  few  in  those 
early  times,  and  teaching  mostly  oral.  We  are,  therefore, 
to  look  not  so  much  for  the  quotation  of  the  precise  words 
of  one  book  in  another,  as  for  the  facts  which  are  assumed 
as  well  known.  Brief  references  sometimes  imply  whole 
periods  of  history  (see  I  Kings  xviii.  36  ;  Hos.  ix.  10  ; 
xi.  1  ;  xii.  3-5,  9,  12,  13  ;  Amos  ii.  9-1 1  ;  iii.  1,2;  v. 
25  ;    ix.    7,   etc.)     {/>)    Large   parts  of  the   Pentateuch, 


PENTATEUCH  AS  PART  OF  THE  BIBLE     57 

as  the  ordinances  for  worship  and  ceremony,  are  of  such 
a  character  that  we  need  not  be  greatly  surprised  if  pro- 
phets and  prophetic  men,  who  wrote  the  succeeding 
books,  do  not  refer  to  them.  We  know  that  worship 
was  carried  on  and  ceremonies  observed,  but  the  regula- 
tions for  these  things  would  be  the  concern  chiefly  of  the 
priests.  Many  things  must  have  been  of  daily  occurrence, 
though  we  have  no  express  mention  of  them.  When  the 
prophet  Ezekiel,  in  the  time  of  the  captivity,  gives  a 
description  of  what  was  to  be  the  ritual  of  the  restored 
Temple  (Ezek.  xl.-xlvi.),  his  language  would  have  been 
unintelligible  unless  his  readers  had  been  familiarised  by 
usage  with  the  things  described  ;  and  yet  we  hear  little 
of  them  in  the  antecedent  history. 

2.  The  value  of  the  opening  chapters  of  Genesis,  which 
refer  to  primeval  times,  is  to  be  estimated  not  so  much 
by  the  literary  form  in  which  they  are  expressed,  as  by 
the  moral  and  spiritual  truths  they  convey.  Though  the 
actual  accounts  may  be  partly  figurative  or  poetical,  the 
view  they  give  of  man's  sin  and  of  God's  purpose  of 
redemption  underlies  the  whole  of  Scripture. 

3.  Since  all  the  legislation  is  contained  in  the  Penta- 
teuch (§  24  end),  and  since  the  arrangement  is  so  uneven 
(§  28,  2),  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  books  now  exhibit 
the  laws  as  they  had  been  handed  down  in  separate  tran- 
scripts, or  even  as  modified  in  course  of  time. 

4.  Many  of  the  references  to  the  Old  Testament  by 
our  Lord  and  by  the  New  Testament  writers  cannot  be 
explained  as  mere  references  to  books  whose  dates  are  a 
matter  of  indifference,  but  are  appeals  to  facts  and  events 
which  are  of  vital  importance  in  the  history  of  revelation. 
See  Matt.  viii.  4;  xix.  4;  xxii.  31,  32;  John  v.  46,  47; 
viii.  56  ;  Acts  iii.  22,  25  ;  vii.  ;  Rom.  iv.  1-3,  10-22  : 
ix.  6-13  ;  Gal.  iii.   15-18. 


58     OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    XI 

THE    HISTORICAL    BOOKS  :    JOSHUA,    JUDGES, 
SAMUEL,    AND    KINGS 

§37.  The  books  from  Joshua  to  Kings  form,  as 
regards  their  subject,  a  continuous  series,  for  they 
exhibit  a  connected  history ;  and  so  we  usually 
speak  of  them  as  historical  books.  The  Jews, 
with  the  idea  that  it  was  prophetical  men  who  wrote 
the  history  of  their  own  times  (§  6,  1  (£)),  called 
these  books  the  former  prophets,  and  placed  them 
before  the  prophets  strictly  so-termed  in  the  second 
division  of  the  Canon  (§  3,  comp.  §  14,  1);  but 
they  are1  all  anonymous,  and  we  are  left  to  deter- 
mine from  the  books  themselves  the  time  and 
manner  of  their  composition. 

1.  Although  the  different  books  of  this  series  are 
diverse  in  their  style  and  mode  of  composition,  it  will  be 
seen  from  the  manner  in  which  each  begins  that  there  is 
an  implied  reference  to  the  narrative  that  precedes.  The 
book  of  Joshua  connects  itself  in  this  way  also  with  the 
Pentateuch  (Josh.  i.  1). 

2.  The  book  of  Ruth  has  its  place,  as  a  historical 
record,  where  it  stands  in  the  English  Bible  (see  Ruth  i. 
1),  and  was  sometimes  counted  as  forming  part  of  Judges 
(§  6). 

3.  A  very  slight  examination  will  show  that  the  names 


THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS  59 

given  to  the  individual  books  refer  to  the  subjects  treated 
of,  and  were  not  intended  (not  even  those  of  Joshua  and 
Samuel)  to  denote  authorship. 

4.  The  book  of  Samuel  is  one  whole,  and  so  is  the 
book  of  Kings.  In  the  Septuagint  and  other  early 
versions  each  of  these  was  divided  into  two  as  we  now 
have  them  in  our  English  Bible.  Those  versions, 
moreover,  taking  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings  as  a 
connected  series,  called  each  of  the  four  parts  a  book  of 
the  kingdoms  or  of  the  kings.  So  our  A.V.  describes  I 
Samuel  as  "  otherwise  called  The  first  book  of  the  Kings," 
and  gives  a  similar  heading  to  the  other  books. 

§  38.  Comparing  the  first  chapter  of  Joshua 
with  the  last  of  2  Kings  we  shall  see  that  the  books 
now  under  consideration  extend  over  the  whole 
course  of  Israel's  history  from  the  occupation  of 
Canaan  to  the  Babylonian  captivity.  And  we 
may  distinguish  four  great  periods,  with  which  the 
four  books  of  the  series  broadly  correspond  :  (a)  the 
invasion  of  Canaan  under  Joshua;  (b)  the  struggle 
for  the  mastery  under  the  Judges ;  (c)  the  rise  of 
the  monarchy  under  Samuel j  and  {ct)  the  history  of 
the  two  kingdoms  till  the  extinction  of  the  Kings. 

1.  Chronological  landmarks.     It  is  stated  in  1 

Kings  vi.  1  that  Solomon,  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign, 
began  to  build  the  Temple  480  years  after  the  Exodus. 
The  particulars  cannot  be  stated  with  precision,  but  they 
may  be  approximately  set  down  thus  : — 

The  Desert  period  lasted  40  years 

Joshua  survived  Moses  25      ,, 

The  Judges,  from  Othniel  to  Samuel  332      ,, 
Saul  reigned  (see  Acts  xiii.  21)  40      ,, 

David  reigned  (see  1  Kings  ii.  11)  40     ,, 

Solomon  began  the  Temple  after  3     ,, 

480  years 


60     OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

Solomon's  reign  lasted  altogether  forty  years  ( I  Kings 
xi.  42);  and  it  may  be  useful  to  observe  that,  by  com- 
puting from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  monarchy, 
we  obtain  a  similar  great  period  of  about  480  years, 
thus: — 

Undivided  Kingdom,  Saul,  David,  and 

Solomon  120  years 

Divided    Kingdom,     till     the    fall    of 

Samaria,  B.C.  722  230     ,, 

Thence  to  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  B.C.  588   134     ,, 

484  years 

We  must,  however,  regard  these  as  approximate 
numbers ;  for  it  is  evident  that  it  was  customary  to 
compute  by  generations,  or  spaces  of  forty  years.  See 
below  §  43,  3. 

2.  For  the  history  subsequent  to  the  captivity,  we 
have  to  turn  to  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  in  the 
third  division  of  the  canon  ;  along  with  which  may  be 
classed,  for  this  purpose,  the  books  of  Esther  and  Daniel, 
as  well  as  the  prophetical  and  other  books  which  were 
written  in  the  exile  or  after  the  restoration.  The  books 
of  Chronicles,  though  written  after  the  exile,  do  not 
practically  continue  the  history  farther  down  than  the 
books  of  Kings. 

§  39.  The  books  dwell  at  very  unequal  length 
upon  different  parts  of  the  history  ;  and,  in  regard 
to  many  things  about  which  we  might  look  for 
information,  we  are  told  little  or  nothing  at  all. 
Those  subjects,  however,  which  the  writers  treat 
at  greater  length  and  with  evident  predilection, 
serve  to  indicate  to  us  the  plan  and  principle  on 
which  the  history  was  written.     Thus  : — 

1.  The  minute  details  regarding  the  partition  of  the 
land  and  the  struggle  for  its  possession,  in  Joshua  and 


THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS  61 

Judges,  exhibit  the  national  interest  in  the  fulfilment  of  the 
promise  made  to  the  patriarchs  (§  26). 

2.  The  great  length  at  which  the  events  in  David's 
life  are  narrated,  in  the  books  of  Samuel,  is  in  keeping 
with  the  significance  attached  to  the  Davidic  line 
(2  Sam.  vii.   12  ff.) 

3.  The  fulness  of  description  in  the  books  of  Kings  of 
the  erection  of  the  Temple,  as  also  the  preference  shown 
for  the  reigns  of  some  kings  over  others,  and  the  recur- 
rence of  certain  phrases  to  describe  their  characters,  prove 
that  it  was  the  religious  aspect  of  the  history  that  was 
the  vital  thing  to  the  writers. 

4.  The  prominence  given  to  the  prophet  Samuel  in  the 
time  of  Saul  and  David,  and  to  Elijah  and  Elisha  in  the 
time  of  later  kings,  not  to  mention  others,  is  very  signi- 
ficant. There  was  a  line  of  prophets  extending 
through  the  whole  history,  some  of  whom  are  not 
mentioned  in  the  historical  books,  guiding  and  moulding 
the  religious  life  (see  Acts  iii.  24)  ;  and  it  is  evident 
that  to  the  sacred  writers  this  feature  of  the  history  is  at 
least  of  equal  importance  with  the  succession  of  the  line 
of  kings.  For  this  reason  the  prophetical  books  should 
always  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  historical 
period  to  which  they  belong. 


62     OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    XII 

THE    BOOK    OF    JOSHUA 

§  40.  This  book  appropriately  bears  the  name 
of  the  warrior  who  had  been  closely  associated 
with  Moses  (Exod.  xxiv.  13  ;  xxxiii.  11),  and  had 
been  solemnly  set  apart  (Deut.  xxxi.)  to  succeed 
him,  not  only  as  a  military  commander  but  as  a 
leader  and  guide  of  the  people  (Num.  xxvii.  16- 
23).  It  relates  the  events  that  took  place  during 
his  leadership,  and  closes  with  the  record  of  his 
death.      It  falls  into  three  great  divisions  : — 

1.  The   conquest   of  the   land   (chaps,    i. -xii.) 

This  part  is  historical,  both  in  form  and  substance.  It 
relates  the  main  operations  by  which  the  people  under 
Joshua  obtained  possession  of  Canaan.  The  chief  points 
are  :  The  sending  of  the  spies  and  the  crossing  of  the 
Jordan  (ii.-iv.);  the  fall  of  Jericho  (v.  13-vi.  27);  the 
capture  (after  a  reverse)  of  Ai  (vii.-viii.  29)  ;  the  treaty 
with  the  Gibeonites  (ix.)  ;  the  defeat  of  the  leagued  kings 
of  the  south  at  the  battle  of  Beth-horon  (x. ) ;  and  the 
defeat  of  a  similar  confederacy  in  the  north  near  the 
waters  of  Merom  (xi.)  It  is  obvious  that  many  details 
are  omitted,  for  a  long  list  of  conquered  kings  is  given 
at  the  close  (xii.) ;  and  it  is  stated  (xi.  18)  that  "Joshua 
made  war  a  long  time  with  all  those   kings."     Yet   the 


THE  BOOK  OF  JOSHUA  63 

narrator  makes  it  particularly  clear  that  it  is  a  holy  war 
he  is  describing,  for  he  tells  us  of  the  miraculous  manner 
in  which  the  Jordan  was  crossed  (iii.)  ;  describes  the 
observance  of  the  Passover  (v.  2-12);  dwells  upon  the 
sin  of  Achan  as  the  cause  of  the  reverse  at  Ai  (vii. ) ;  and 
relates  the  confirming  of  the  Covenant  at  Ebal  and 
Gerizim  (viii.  30-35). 

2.  The  partition  of  the  land  (xiii.  -xxii. )  This  part, 
while  historical  in  form,  is  topographical  and  legislative  in 
contents.  Here  the  main  points  are  :  After  a  sketch 
of  the  land  to  be  divided  (xiii.  1-7),  and  of  the  territory 
already  assigned  to  the  tribes  east  of  the  Jordan  (xiii.  8- 
33),  Hebron  is  given  to  Caleb  (xiv.  6- 1 5),  and  the  three 
tribes,  Judah,  Ephraim,  and  half  Manasseh  receive  their 
portions  in  the  western  territory  (xv.-xvii.)  Afterwards, 
the  Tabernacle  being  set  up,  the  remaining  tribes,  except 
Levi,  receive  theirs  (xviii.-xix.  48),  a  special  inheritance 
being  assigned  to  Joshua  (xix.  49-51)  ;  the  cities  of  refuge 
and  the  cities  of  the  Levites  are  set  apart ;  and  the  two 
tribes  and  a  half  who  had  assisted  in  the  conquest  are 
sent  to  their  homes  (xx. -xxii.)  Here  again,  while  the 
details  are  very  unequal,  the  sacred  character  of  all  the 
proceedings  is  clearly  indicated.  The  inheritances  are 
distributed  by  lot  (xiv.  2,  xviii.  6,  10),  the  cities  of 
refuge  and  the  Levitical  territory  have  a  religious  reference 
(xx. -xxi.),  and  the  jealousy  of  the  people  for  national  unity 
of  religion  is  shown  in  the  matter  of  the  altar  Ed  (xxii. 
10-34). 

3.  The  leader's  farewell  (xxiii.,  xxi  v.)  This  part  is 
mostly  hortatory.  Joshua  warns  the  people  against 
idolatry,  renews  the  Covenant  with  solemn  ceremony, 
and  incorporates  a  record  of  the  transaction  in  the  Book 
of  the  Law.  The  book  closes  with  an  account  of  the 
death  and  burial  of  Joshua  and  of  Eleazar  (xxiv.  29-33). 

§  41.  In  style,  different  parts  of  the  book  of 
Joshua  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  different  parts 
of  the  Pentateuch.  This  has  led  to  the  supposi- 
tion   that    originally   the   component  parts   of  the 


64     OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

Pentateuch  (§  33)  extended  beyond  the  death  of 
Moses  ;  and  hence  by  modern  writers  the  name 
Hexateuch,  or  six -fold  book,  is  used  to  denote 
what  they  believe  to  have  been  at  one  time  a  con- 
tinuous work  embracing  the  history  of  the  Conquest 
of  Canaan.  In  another  respect  the  book  of  Joshua 
is  closely  allied  to  the  Pentateuch.  The  spirit  of 
the  Mosaic  time  is  still  active  ;  and,  besides  the 
general  religious  tone  which  pervades  the  book,  we 
can  observe  a  special  purpose  throughout,  to  ex- 
hibit the  fulfilment  of  the  promise  that  is  at  the 
basis  of  the  Pentateuch.  See  xi.  23,  and  again, 
xxi.  43-45.  The  keynote  is  "  Be  strong  and  of 
a  good  courage  "  (i.  6,  9,  1 8).  The  reaction  follows 
in  the  next  book  (see  Judges  ii.  7  ff.) 

1.  Along  with  the  resemblances  to  the  Pentateuch 
there  are  noticeable  certain  points  of  difference,  and  in- 
dications that  this  book  was  intended  to  be  complete  in 
itself.  The  references  to  the  "  Book  of  the  law  of 
Moses"  (i.  8;  viii.  34,  35  ;  xxiv.  26)  imply  the  exist- 
ence, in  an  independent  form,  of  some  antecedent  writing. 
If  the  works  were  originally  united,  the  separation  must 
have  taken  place  very  early  ;  for  the  Samaritans,  who 
received  the  Pentateuch  from  the  Jews  (§91,  5),  have  a 
very  different  work  for  their  book  of  Joshua.  See  also 
§  14,  1. 


THE  BOOK  OF  JUDGES  65 


CHAPTER    XIII 
THE    BOOK    OF   JUDGES 

§  42.  This  book  is  named  from  the  men  who 
appear  as  the  leaders  of  Israel  in  the  period  suc- 
ceeding Joshua.  They  are  called  Judges,  primarily 
because  they  judged  Israel  in  the  sense  of  defend- 
ing the  national  cause  against  enemies  ;  and  for 
the  same  reason  they  are  called  "saviours"  (iii.  9, 
15  R.V.)  It  is  with  this  aspect  of  their  activity 
that  the  book  mainly  concerns  itself;  their  civil 
functions  being  only  barely  mentioned.  The  book 
falls  naturally  into  the  following  three  parts : — 

1.  The  Introduction  (chap.  i.  i-ii.  5),  which  is 
retrospective,  giving  an  account  of  the  extent  to  whicli 
the  country  had  been  subdued  "  after  the  death  of 
Joshua."  It  connects  itself  in  a  manner  with  the  first 
part  of  the  book  of  Joshua,  repeating  sometimes  even  its 
words  (compare  Jud.  i.   1 1  -1 5  with  Josh.  xv.   15-19). 

2.  The  deeds  of  the  Judges,  forming  the  main 

part  of  the  book  (ii.  6-xvi.  31).  This  is  preceded  by  an 
introduction  of  its  own  (ii.  6-iii.  6)  which  is  prospective, 
giving  a  summary  view  of  the  whole  period  to  be  treated 
of.  Then  follow  the  exploits  of  the  Judges,  in  regard  to 
six  of  whom  we  have  more  or  less  full  details,  viz.  : — 

Othniel,  the  son  of  Kenaz,  who  shook  off  the  oppres- 
sion of  Cushan-Rishathaim  of  Mesopotamia  (iii.  7-1 1). 


66    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

Ehud,  of  Benjamin,  who  saved  Israel  from  Moab  (iii. 
12-30). 

Deborah,  of  Ephraim,  and  Barak,  of  Naphtali,  who 
defeated  Sisera,  the  general  of  Jabin,  King  of  the 
Canaanites  (iv.,  v.) 

Gideon,  of  Manasseh,  who  drove  back  the  Midianites 
(vi.  i-viii.  32). 

Jephthah,  of  Gilead,  who  waged  war  with  Ammon 
(x.  6-xii.  7). 

Samson,  of  Dan,  who  contended  with  the  Philistines 
(xiii.-xvi.) 

Besides  these,  six  others  are  mentioned  :  Shamgar, 
who  performed  a  daring  feat  against  the  Philistines  (iii. 
31) ;  Tola,  of  Issachar  (x.  1,  2) ;  Jair,  of  Gilead  (x.  3-5)  ; 
Ibzan,  of  Bethlehem  (xii.  8-10)  ;  Elon,  of  Zebulon  (xii. 
11,  12);  and  Abdon,  of  Pirathon  (xii.  13-15);  but  we 
are  told  no  more  about  them  than  the  period  of  their 
activity  and  some  details  as  to  their  families  and  position. 
.  Abimelech,  the  son  of  Gideon,  who,  presuming  on  the 
high  respect  paid  to  his  father,  set  himself  up  as  a  king 
(viii.  33-ix.  57),  is  not,  properly  speaking,  one  of  the 
Judges. 

3.  TWO  detached  episodes  placed  at  the  end  of 
the  book  (xvii.,  xviii. ;  xix.-xxi. )  These  apparently  belong 
to  the  earlier  period  of  the  Judges.  The  one  is  the 
story  of  Micah  and  his  image-worship,  in  its  connection 
with  the  settling  of  the  Danites  in  the  north  ;  the  other, 
the  account  of  the  outrage  committed  at  Gibeah,  which 
led  to  the  war  of  extermination  waged  by  the  tribes 
against  Benjamin. 

§  43.  The  literary  features  of  this  book  are 
such  as  to  suggest  that  different  parts  have  come 
from  different  hands.  Possibly  the  accounts 
which  form  the  body  of  the  book  were  collected 
and  joined  together  by  one  writer ;  but  we  are  left 
to  inference  or  conjecture  for  the  dates  of  the 
several  parts.      So,  although  there  is  evidently  a 


THE  BOOK  OF  JUDGES  67 

design  in  the  recurring  statements  of  the  numbers 
of  years  of  servitude  and  rest,  a  satisfactory  chrono- 
logy of  the  book  cannot  be  arrived  at.  One  thing 
is  plain,  the  aim  of  the  book  is  not  to  relate  a 
number  of  wonderful  tales,  but  to  enforce  the  lesson 
of  God's  providence  taught  in  the  experience  of 
the  nation.  Sin,  punishment,  repentance,  deliver- 
ance,— these  are  the  points  on  which  the  whole 
hinges — the  philosophy  of  history  implied  in  this 
book. 

1.  The  expression  that  occurs  in  the  closing  chapters 
"In  those  days  there  was  no  king  in  Israel"  (xvii.  6  ; 
xviii.  1  ;  xix.  I  ;  xxi.  25)  leads  to  the  conclusion  that 
these  parts  at  least  were  written  some  time  after  the 
establishment  of  the  monarchy  ;  whereas  such  references 
as  are  found  in  i.  21  indicate  an  earlier  period. 

2.  If  it  was  of  purpose  that  the  number  of  Judges  is 
given  as  twelve,  there  is  no  hint  of  this  in  the  book 
itself;  nor  do  they  seem  to  be  distributed  among  the 
twelve  tribes  ;  for  three  tribes,  Levi,  Reuben,  and 
Simeon,  furnish  no  judge. 

3.  The  total  number  of  years  of  "oppression,"  judge- 
ship, and  "rest, "added  together,  amounts  to  410,  whereas, 
in  1  Kings,  vi.  1,  the  whole  period  from  the  Exodus  to 
the  building  of  the  Temple  is  given  as  480  years  (§  38,  1). 
This  has  led  many  to  suppose  that  the  years  mentioned 
in  this  book  were  not  strictly  consecutive,  but  that  the 
different  accounts  partly  overlap  one  another,  some  of 
the  Judges  being  contemporaneous.  The  recurrence  of 
the  number  "forty"  is  doubtless  an  indication  that  the 
time  was  roughly  counted  by  generations  ;  so  that  strict 
precision  in  the  chronology  is  not  to  be  arrived  at. 

4.  The  aim  with  which  these  accounts  of  the  Judges 
are  put  together  is  clearly  seen  in  the  introduction  (ii. 
1 1- 18),  and  in  the  repetition  of  almost  stereotyped  expres- 
sions at  the  opening  and  the  close  of  the  various  narra- 
tives ;  e.g.   iii.    7-9,  11  ;  iv.   1-3,  23,  24,  etc.      But  this 


68    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

is  not  a  mere  religious  dressing  up  of  the  exploits  of 
a  lawless  age  by  the  hand  of  a  later  editor.  The  song 
of  Deborah  (chap,  v.),  which  bears  the  impress  of  the 
victory  which  it  celebrates,  shows  that  the  actors  in  these 
stirring  scenes  were  conscious  that  they  were  engaged  in 
a  sacred  warfare.  And  there  are  indications  of  the  same 
fact  in  the  other  narratives. 


THE  BOOKS  OF  SAMUEL  69 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE    BOOKS    OF    SAMUEL 

§  44.  The  two  books  of  Samuel,  which  were 
originally  one  (§  37,  4),  may  be  conveniently 
taken  together.  They  bear  the  name  of  Samuel, 
although  his  death  is  mentioned  as  early  as 
1  Sam.  xxv.  1,  because  he  is  a  prominent  figure  in 
the  history,  forming  the  connecting  link  between 
the  period  of  the  judges  and  that  of  the  kings,  the 
two  first  of  whom  he  called  to  their  office.  The 
book  begins  in  the  judgeship  of  Eli,  and  comes 
down  to  the  close  of  David's  reign.  It  may  be 
divided  into  three  parts  corresponding  to  the  three 
great  personages  with  whom  it  deals,  although, 
as  will  be  seen,  they  cannot  be  represented 
independently.   These  are  : — 

1.  The  period  of  Samuel  (1  Sam.  i.-xii.)  In  this 
part  we  are  told  of  the  birth  and  dedication  of  Samuel, 
and  of  the  revelation  to  him  of  the  doom  that  was  to  fall 
upon  the  priestly  house  of  Eli  (1  i.-iii.  18).  He  is 
recognised  at  Shiloh  as  "  a  prophet  of  the  Lord  "  (iii.  19- 
21)  ;  and  when  Divine  punishment  falls  upon  Israel,  in 
the  loss  of  the  ark  (iv. ),  he  so  moves  the  people  to  peni- 
tence that  there  is  a  revival  of  national  religion  and  zeal, 
culminating  in  the  battle  of  Ebenezer  (v.  2-vii.  14).     And 


7o    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

from  this  time  onwards  Samuel  is  seen  moving  about  in 
circuit  administering  the  nation's  affairs  (vii.  15-17). 
But  the  course  of  events  had  prepared  for  a  new  phase 
of  the  national  life  (viii.  1-5).  The  people  ask  Samuel 
to  appoint  a  king  over  them  ;  and,  after  warning  them,  by 
Divine  command,  of  the  dangers  to  which  this  would 
lead  (viii.  6-22),  he  anoints  Saul  the  son  of  Kish 
(ix.  i-x.  16),  whose  appointment  is  ratified  by  lot  and 
ordinance  (x.  17-26)  and  vindicated  against  gainsayers 
by  the  king's  successful  encounter  with  the  Ammonites 
(x.  27-xi.  15), — after  which  Samuel  formally  lays  down 
his  own  office  of  judge  (xii.) 

2.  The  reign  of  Saul  extends  to  the  end  of  the  first 
book  (1  Sam.  xiii.-xxxi.)  But  here  Samuel  and  David  are 
as  prominent  in  the  history  as  the  king  himself.  Saul 
distinguishes  himself  in  war  against  the  Philistines  and 
Amalekites,  his  son  Jonathan  being  equally  conspicuous 
(xiii.-xv.);  but  he  has  to  be  continually  reminded  that  he 
reigns  by  Divine  sanction ;  and,  after  he  has  twice 
disobeyed  the  Divine  command  given  through  the 
prophet,  sentence  of  rejection  is  pronounced  against  him 
(xiii.  8  ff.,  xv.  9  ff.)  From  this  time  onwards  David,  who 
has  been  chosen  by  God  and  secretly  anointed  by  Samuel 
(xvi.  1 -13),  comes  into  prominence,  the  rest  of  the  book 
containing  an  account  of  his  rise  at  the  court  of  Saul 
(xvi.  14-23),  his  favour  with  Jonathan  and  the  people 
(xvii.  i-xviii.  7),  and  his  persecution  by  Saul  (xviii.  8- 
xix.  1,  etc.)  First  he  takes  refuge  with  Samuel,  then  he 
flees  to  the  Philistines,  who  send  him  back  to  Judah 
(xix.  2-xxi.  15).  At  Adullam  he  becomes  the  chief  of  a 
band  of  disaffected  men,  and  has  Gad  the  Seer  in  his 
company.  Saul  continues  his  persecution,  so  that  David 
has  to  send  his  parents  for  safety  to  Moab,  and  the 
priests  at  Nob  have  to  suffer  the  king's  vengeance  (xxii.) 
Still,  by  his  engagements  against  the  Philistines  and  by 
his  generosity  to  Saul  when  he  had  him  in  his  power, 
David  wins  more  and  more  the  confidence  of  Israel 
(xxiii.,  xxiv. );  so  that,  at  the  death  of  Samuel  (xxv.  1),  he 
is  universally  regarded  as  the  coming  king.     During  all 


THE  BOOKS  OF  SAMUEL  71 

these  persecutions  he  is  cheered  and  supported  by  the 
self-sacrificing  devotion  of  his  friend  Jonathan.  But  he 
has  still  to  elude  the  violence  of  Saul,  and,  escaping  in 
succession  from  Keilah,  Maon,  Engedi,  Paran,  and  Ziph 
(xxiii.-xxvi.),  he  finally  seeks  an  asylum  with  Achish, 
king  of  Gath,  who  assigns  him  Ziklag  for  a  residence. 
Here  it  was  only  the  jealousy  of  the  lords  of  the  Phil- 
istines that  saved  him  from  fighting  against  his  own 
country  in  the  war  which  the  Philistines  were  about  to 
wage  with  Israel  (xxix.,  xxx. )  At  last  Saul,  driven  to 
desperation,  consults  the  witch  of  Endor,  at  whose  house 
he  learns  the  doom  which  is  to  befall  him  next  day  at 
the  battle  of  Gilboa,  where  he  perishes  by  his  own  hand 
(xxviii.,  xxxi.) 

3.  The  reign  of  David  occupies  the  whole  of  the 

second  book  (2  Sam.  i.-xxiv. );  chaps,  i.-iv.  relating  to 
the  seven  years  and  a  half  that  he  reigned  at  Hebron  over 
Judah  alone,  while  an  attempt  was  made  to  keep  the 
kingdom  for  Ishbosheth,  Saul's  son  ;  and  the  rest  of  the 
book  giving  his  reign  at  Jerusalem  over  all  Israel.  The 
conspicuous  events  are  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  from  the 
Jebusites  and  the  fixing  there  of  the  royal  residence  (v.  1- 
16);  the  transference  to  the  capital  of  the  Ark  of  the  Cove- 
nant, and  preparations  for  the  building  of  the  Temple  ; 
with  the  promise  conveyed  through  Nathan  of  the  contin- 
uance of  the  Davidic  house  (v.  17-vii.  29).  Then 
follow  an  account  of  the  enlargement  of  the  kingdom  by 
conquests  over  the  Philistines,  Moabites,  Edomites,  and 
Syrians  (viii.  1-14),  a  description  of  the  magnificence  of 
David's  court,  and  an  enumeration  of  his  officials  (viii.  1 5- 
x.  19).  But  another  side  of  the  picture  is  presented  in  the 
succeeding  chapters.  David's  sin  in  the  matter  of  Bath- 
sheba  (xi. )  is  the  cause  of  evil  against  him  out  of  his  own 
house  (xii.  11),  culminating  in  the  rebellion  of  Absalom 
(xii.-xv.  12).  His  flight  from  Jerusalem,  the  bitter  war, 
with  the  king's  grief  at  the  death  of  Absalom,  and  his 
victorious  return  to  Jerusalem,  are  narrated  at  length  (xv. 
13-xix.  40);  but  the  shadow  of  greater  coming  trouble  is 
seen  in  the  jealousies  of  the  tribes,  and  the  revolt  of  Sheba, 


72    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

son  of  Bichri, — the  prelude  of  the  disruption  of  the  united 
Kingdom  (xix.  41 -xx.  22).  The  four  concluding  chap- 
ters contain  various  supplementary  matters  :  the  famine 
and  the  means  taken  for  its  removal  (xxi.  1  - 1 4),  the  names 
and  exploits  of  David's  mighty  men  (xx.  23-26  ;  xxi.  15- 
22  ;  xxiii.  8-39,  poetical  pieces  of  David's  (xxii.  i-xxiii.  7), 
and  the  numbering  of  the  people,  followed  by  the  plague 
and  its  cessation  (xxiv.) 

§  45.  The  books  of  Samuel  are  evidently  con- 
structed with  the  design  of  exhibiting  a  connected 
history.  But  their  literary  features  indicate  that 
they  are  composed  of  various  materials,  probably 
belonging  to  different  dates.  Though  the  period 
which  they  cover  is  not  very  extensive  (see  §  38, 
1),  yet  the  times  were  troublous,  and  the  narratives 
may  have  been  derived  from  both  oral  and  written 
sources ;  so  that,  as  is  usually  the  case  when 
different  accounts  are  preserved  of  the  same 
events,  it  is  difficult  to  arrange  the  whole  in  per- 
fect harmony.  It  is  only  by  inferences  from 
isolated  passages  that  we  can  form  an  opinion  as 
to  the  date  of  final  composition. 

1.  The  author  incorporates,  e.g.,  certain  poetical 
pieces,  giving  us  to  understand  that  they  are  not  of  his 
own  composition.  See  I  Sam.  ii.  1-10  ;  2  Sam.  i.  19- 
27,  compare  verse  18  ;  xxii.,  with  which  compare  Ps. 
xviii.  ;  xxiii.  1 -7.  The  passages  2  Sam.  xxi.  15-22  and 
xxiii.  8-39,  may  be  drawn  from  state  records. 

2.  It  is  extremely  difficult  to  find  a  complete  harmony 
between  the  passages  relating  to  David's  presentation  at 
the  court  of  Saul  in  1  Sam.  xvi.  19-23  and  xvii.  12-31, 
55-58  ;  many  regard  them  as  two  different  accounts 
which  have  become  fused  together.  The  Septuagint, 
omitting  several  passages  in  these  chapters,  presents  a 
consistent  and  continuous    narrative.      Compare  also   1 


THE  BOOKS  OF  SAMUEL  73 

Sam.  vii.  13  with  ix.  16  ;  x.  5  ;  xiii.  ;  and  observe  how 
far  1  Sam.  xiii.  8  is  separated  from  x.  8. 

3.  There  is  no  reference  to  the  Captivity  in  the  books. 
On  the  other  hand,  2  Sam.  v.  5  must  have  been  written 
after  the  death  of  David,  and  1  Sam.  xxvii.  6  would 
bring  us  down  to  the  time  of  the  divided  kingdom.  The 
recurring  phrase,  "unto  this  day"  (1  Sam.  v.  5;  vi. 
18;  2  Sam.  vi.  8;  xviii.  18,  etc.),  suggests  a  consider- 
able lapse  of  time  between  the  events  and  the  record  of 
them;  and  other  antiquarian  remarks  (1  Sam.  ix.  9; 
2  Sam.  xiii.  18),  point  in  the  same  direction. 

§  46.  These  books  are  deeply  interesting  as  a 
portion  of  the  sacred  history  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. They  show  the  transition  from  the  more 
unsettled  period  of  struggle  under  the  judges  to 
the  period  of  consolidated  national  life  under  the 
monarchy ;  and  exhibit  the  rise  and  growth  of 
institutions  which  fitted  Israel  to  fulfil  its  calling 
in  God's  plan  of  revelation.  The  chief  things  to 
be  noticed  are  : — 

1.  The  setting  up,  not  merely  of  a  kingly  form  of 
government,  but  of  the  line  of  David,  with  special 
sanction  and  promise  (2  Sam.  v.  17;  vii.  29), — a  line 
which  lasted  to  the  close  of  the  national  history.  The 
writer  clearly  indicates  that  there  was  a  prospective 
religious  significance  in  this  choice. 

2.  The  prominence  which  prophecy  henceforth  as- 
sumes. Though  it  did  not  actually  begin  with  Samuel, 
yet  from  his  time  onwards  it  takes  a  more  official  form 
and  public  position  ;  for  we  can  trace  a  line  of  men  taking 
up  the  same  attitude  that  he  held  towards  both  king  and 
people. 

3.  It  is  interesting  to  find  that  prophetic  men  who  are 
mentioned  in  these  books  are  referred  to  in  the  books  of 
Chronicles  as  writers  of  history  (1  Chron.  xxix.  29, 
R.V.  ;  2  Chron.  ix.  29).      We  know  that  later  prophets, 


74    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

as  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  wrote  history  (see  2  Chron. 
xxvi.  22;  xxxii.  32;  and  many  chapters  in  the  book 
of  Jeremiah);  and  we  hear  of  a  "recorder"  and  a 
"scribe"  at  David's  court  (2  Sam.  viii.  16-18,  comp. 
xx.  24,  25).  It  is  not  improbable,  therefore,  that  the 
original  records  contained  in  these  books  came  from 
such  hands. 

4.  It  is  also  interesting  to  note  that  David,  who  was 
renowned  for  his  skill  in  music  and  poetry  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  1  ;  Amos  vi.  5),  is  found  associated  with  those 
companies  of  the  prophets  in  which  these  gifts  were 
exercised  (1  Sam.  xix.  18  ff.) 


THE  BOOKS  OF  KINGS  75 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE    BOOKS    OF    KINGS 

§  47.  The  two  books  of  Kings  may,  like  the 
books  of  Samuel,  be  considered  together  (§  37,  4). 
The  name  explains  itself;  for  the  books  contain 
a  history  of  the  kings,  beginning  with  Solomon, 
under  whom  the  monarchy  was  still  undivided, 
continuing  it  in  the  double  line  which  arose  in  the 
time  of  his  successor,  and  carrying  it  on,  after  the 
northern  kingdom  was  swept  away,  to  the  point  at 
which  the  last  of  the  kings  of  Judah  also  was  taken 
captive.  It  will  be  convenient  to  arrange  the 
contents  of  the  two  books  according  to  these 
three  stages  of  the  history  : — 

1.  The  reign  of  Solomon  (1  Kings  i.-xi.)    There 

is  a  very  close  connection  between  the  opening  of  the 
books  and  the  close  of  the  books  of  Samuel,  for  Solomon 
ascended  the  throne  while  David  was  still  alive.  In 
chaps,  i.  and  ii.  we  are  told  how  the  attempt  of  Adonijah 
to  obtain  the  succession  was  defeated,  mainly  by  the  skill 
of  Nathan  the  prophet,  and  how  the  throne  was  secured 
to  Solomon  ;  to  whose  reign  the  rest  of  this  section  is 
devoted.  Chaps,  iii.-ix.  9  describe  the  internal  condition 
of  the  kingdom  ;  and  here  the  chief  points  are  :  the 
wisdom  of  the  king  (iii.)  ;  the  arrangements  of  his  court, 


76    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

and  his  great  fame  (iv.)  ;  his  treaty  with  Hiram,  king  of 
Tyre,  whereby  all  necessary  materials  were  procured  for 
the  building  of  the  Temple  and  palace  at  Jerusalem  (v.  -vii. ) ; 
and  the  completion  and  dedication  of  the  Temple  (viii.- 
ix.  9).  The  remainder  of  the  section  (ix.  io-xi.  43) 
deals  more  particularly  with  the  external  affairs  of  the 
kingdom,  such  as  Solomon's  relations  with  Hiram,  his 
alliance  with  the  king  of  Egypt,  his  trade  with  Ophir, 
and  the  visit  to  him  of  the  queen  of  Sheba  (ix.  10-x. 
13).  The  magnificence  displayed  on  this  occasion  (x. 
14-29)  suggests  the  mention  of  his  foreign  wives  and 
their  evil  influence  (xi.  1-13),  foreboding  the  troubles 
that  were  in  store  for  the  kingdom  (xi.  14-43). 

2.  The  divided  kingdom  (1  Kings  xii.-2  Kings 

xvii.),  from  the  rupture  under  Jeroboam  till  the  Assyrians 
take  Samaria  and  carry  its  people  into  captivity.  The 
whole  space  may  be  divided  into  three  periods  : — 

(a)  The  first  period  extends  to  the  beginning  of  Ahab's 
reign,  and  exhibits  the  two  kingdoms  in  sharp  antagonism 
(1  Kings  xii.  i-xvi.  28).  The  events  that  led  to  the 
breaking  away  of  the  ten  tribes  from  the  sway  of 
Rehoboam  are  fully  explained  (xii.  i-xiv.  20).  In  the 
southern  kingdom  three  reigns  are  embraced  in  the 
period  :  those  of  Rehoboam  and  Abijam  who  suffered 
from  the  attacks  of  Egypt,  and  were  at  constant  war  with 
the  northern  kingdom  (xiv.  21-xv.  8) ;  and  that  of  Asa, 
who  showed  reforming  zeal,  and  was  successful  in  his 
conflict  with  Israel  (xv.  9-24).  In  the  northern  kingdom, 
the  line  of  Jeroboam  ends  with  his  son  Nadab  (xv.  25- 
30) ;  then  a  usurper  Baasha  is  succeeded  by  his  son  Elan, 
who  is  murdered  by  his  own  servant  Zimri.  The 
murderer  is,  however,  driven  from  the  throne  by  Omri, 
the  head  of  the  army,  who,  after  a  civil  war  with  Tibni, 
gains  the  supremacy  and  founds  the  dynasty  which  goes 
by  his  name  (xvi.  1-22). 

(/')  The  second  period  embraces  the  whole  duration  of 
the  house  of  Omri  in  Israel,  and  in  Judah  extends  to  the 
commencement  of  the  reign  of  the  boy  king  Joash  ( 1  Kings 
xvi.  23  to  2  Kings  xi.  20).      In  this  period,  owing  to  an 


THE  BOOKS  OF  KINGS  77 

intermarriage,  the  two  kingdoms  are  brought  into  friendly 
contact.  The  reign  of  Ahab,  which  lasted  twenty-two 
years,  bulks  largely  in  the  narrative  ;  for  he  was  a  power- 
ful prince,  and  his  marriage  with  Jezebel,  daughter  of  the 
king  of  Phoenicia,  led  him  to  introduce  the  Tyrian  wor- 
ship of  Baal  and  Astarte,  against  which  Elijah  raised  his 
well-known  protest  (I  Kings  xvi.  29-xix.  14),  Elisha 
and  Jehu  being  designated  to  carry  out  the  reforming 
work  (xix.  15-21).  We  are  told  of  Ahab's  successful 
war  against  Benhadad  of  Syria,  of  his  tyrannical  dealing 
with  Naboth  of  Jezreel  (xx.,  xxi.),  and  how  he  was 
mortally  wounded  at  Ramoth-Gilead  (xxii.  1-40).  In 
this  war  against  Syria,  he  had  for  his  ally  Jehoshaphat, 
the  good  king  of  Judah.  The  alliance  continued  in  the 
time  of  Ahab's  sons  and  successors,  Ahaziah  and  Joram 
(1  Kings  xxii.  40-53  ;  2  Kings  iii.),  and  was  cemented  by 
the  marriage  of  Jehoshaphat's  son,  Jehoram,  to  Athaliah, 
the  daughter  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel  (2  Kings  viii.  16-18). 
But  it  was  a  fatal  alliance  to  both  houses  ;  for  Joram  of 
Israel,  suffering  from  wounds  received  in  a  war  with 
Syria,  was  suddenly  attacked  and  killed  by  his  own 
general  Jehu,  who  at  the  same  time  put  to  death  both 
Jezebel  the  queen-mother,  and  also  Ahaziah,  king  of 
Judah,  who  had  come  to  visit  his  sick  kinsman  (2  Kings 
ix.,  x.)  Athaliah,  hearing  at  Jerusalem  of  the  death  of 
her  son  Ahaziah,  kills  all  the  seed  royal — one  infant, 
Joash,  alone  escaping — and  usurps  the  throne  for  six  years. 
At  the  end  of  that  time  young  Joash  is  exhibited  to  the 
people  and  proclaimed  king  by  the  high  priest  Jehoiada  ; 
Athaliah  herself  perishes,  and  with  her  the  house  of  Omri 
is  at  an  end  (2  Kings  xi.) 

(r)  The  third  period,  in  which  the  two  kingdoms  are 
again  less  friendly,  or  even  hostile,  extends  to  the  fall  of 
Samaria  (2  Kings  xii.-xvii.);  the  kings  of  Judah  being 
Joash,  Amaziah,  Uzziah  (or  Azariah),  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and 
Hezekiah.  The  line  of  Jehu  was  continued  in  Jehoahaz, 
Joash,  Jeroboam  II.,  and  Zechariah,  the  greatest  of  whom 
was  Jeroboam  II.,  who  had  a  reign  of  forty-one  years  and 
saw  the  widest  extension  of  the  dominion  of  Israel  (xiv. 


78    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

23-29).  In  this  period,  besides  their  conflicts  with  one 
another  (xiv.  1-16),  both  kingdoms  had  to  wage  war  with 
the  kingdom  of  Damascus  or  Syria  (2  Kings  xii.  ;  xiii. 
1-13,  22-25),  and  nacl  a  more  formidable  enemy  to  en- 
counter in  Assyria.  Especially  after  the  strong  hand  of 
Jeroboam  II.  of  Israel  was  relaxed,  and  a  succession  of 
usurpers  held  the  throne,  that  kingdom  hastened  to  its 
decay.  Shalium,  after  a  month's  reign,  is  murdered  by 
Menahem,  who  reigned  ten  years  but  had  to  pay  tribute 
to  Pul  of  Assyria  to  gain  his  support  on  the  throne.  His 
son,  Pekahiah  is  dethroned,  after  a  reign  of  two  years,  by 
his  officer  Pekah  ;  in  whose  reign  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of 
Assyria,  invades  the  country  and  carries  away  many  of 
its  inhabitants.  Pekah  is  next  dethroned  and  succeeded 
by  Hoshea  (2  Kings  xv.  8-31),  in  whose  reign  the 
Assyrians  again  come  up,  lay  siege  to  Samaria,  put  an 
end  to  the  kingdom,  and  settle  foreigners  in  the  place  of 
the  exiled  inhabitants  (xvi.  9-xvii.  41).  Nor  was  the 
kingdom  of  Judah  free  from  foreign  terrors.  Jotham  had 
to  face  a  hostile  combination  of  Pekah  of  Israel  and 
Rezin  of  Damascus  (xv.  32-38) ;  and  the  danger  became 
so  pressing  in  the  time  of  his  successor  Ahaz  that  the 
latter  sent  offers  of  submission  to  Assyria  as  the  price  of 
assistance  against  his  two  northern  neighbours  (xvi.  1-8). 

3.  The   surviving   kingdom   of  Judah.    The 

northern  kingdom  being  now  at  an  end,  the  remainder 
of  the  book  deals  with  the  fortunes  of  the  sole  kingdom 
of  Judah  (2  Kings  xviii.-xxv. ),  from  the  sixth  year  of 
Hezekiah  down  to  the  thirty-seventh  year  of  the  captivity 
of  Judah.  Hezekiah's  reign  is  marked  by  a  revival  of 
religion,  in  which  the  activity  of  the  prophet  Isaiah  is 
conspicuous  ;  but  a  hint  is  given,  on  the  occasion  of  an 
embassy  from  the  king  of  Babylon,  of  the  approaching 
downfall  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  (xviii.-xx.)  The 
catastrophe  is  only  accelerated  by  the  impious  conduct  of 
the  next  two  kings,  Manasseh  and  Amon  (xxi.);  and  the 
promise  of  better  things,  raised  by  the  reforming  zeal  of 
Josiah,  is  quenched  by  the  early  death  of  that  king 
fighting    against    Pharaoh  -  necoh   at    Megiddo   (xxii.    1- 


THE  BOOKS  OF  KINGS  79 

xxiii.  30).  From  this  point  the  history  hastens  to  its 
close.  Jehoiakim,  son  of  Josiah,  is  made  king  by  the 
Egyptians,  instead  of  another  son  who  had  been  chosen 
by  the  people  ;  but  he  is  hard  pressed  by  the  Babylonians, 
and  his  successor  Jehoiachin  is  reduced  so  low  that  he 
surrenders  himself  to  Nebuchadnezzar.  National  inde- 
pendence is  no  more  ;  Jehoiachin,  with  10,000  of  his 
people,  is  taken  to  Babylon,  and  his  uncle  Mattaniah 
or  Zedekiah  placed  on  the  throne.  But  in  a  short 
time  the  king  of  Babylon,  finding  him  unfaithful,  marches 
into  Judah  with  an  army,  and,  after  a  siege  of  three  years, 
takes  and  destroys  Jerusalem,  leaving  only  a  few 
inhabitants  under  a  governor  Gedaliah,  whom  they 
murder,  taking  refuge  in  Egypt  to  escape  the  wrath  of 
the  king  of  Babylon.  The  narrative  breaks  off  rather 
abruptly  when  Jehoiachin  was  still  alive,  and  treated  with 
honour,  in  the  land  of  his  captivity  (xxiii.  31-xxv.  30). 

§  48.  The  plan  of  these  books  is  evidently  to 
show  the  growth  and  decay  of  the  kingdom,  and 
to  indicate  the  influences  which  controlled  the 
history.  The  whole  is  presented  from  a  religious 
point  of  view ;  and  so  far  as  the  fortunes  of  the 
two  kingdoms  are  concerned,  one  fundamental  point 
is  never  lost  sight  of,  viz.  the  promise  of  perpetuity 
to  the  house  of  David,  which  finds  repeated 
expression  from  stage  to  stage  (1  Kings  ii.  4  ; 
xi.  34-39  5  xv.  4,  5  :  2  Kings  viii.  19;  xix.  34; 
xx.  6),  down  to  the  very  close,  when  a  gleam  of 
hope  shines  through  the  darkness  of  exile  (2  Kings 
xxv.  27-30).  As  to  the  literary  form,  we  have 
to  notice  the  following  characteristics  : 

1.  There  is  a  framework,  of  almost  stereotyped 
phrases,  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  each  reign,  within 
which  the  particulars  recorded  of  the  successive  kings 
are  arranged.      Thus,  at  the  beginning  of  a  reign,  we  are 


80    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

usually  told  how  old  the  king  was  at  his  accession,  how 
many  years  he  reigned,  and,  in  the  case  of  a  king  of 
Judah,  his  mother's  name.  Then  comes  a  general 
description  of  the  character  of  his  rule,  as  good  or  evil 
"  in  the  eyes  of  the  Lord."  At  the  close  of  the  reign, 
the  place  of  the  king's  burial  and  the  name  of  the 
succeeding  ruler  are  stated,  and  a  reference  is  given  to 
another  authority  for  fuller  details. 

2.  In  regard  to  the'divided  kingdom,  the  method 
is  to  record  first  the  events  relating  to  the  northern,  and 
then  to  give  the  contemporaneous  history  of  the  southern. 
This  leads  sometimes  to  the  repetition  of  the  same  events 
under  two  reigns.  Compare  2  Kings  xvii.  5,  6  with 
xviii.  9  ff.  and  1  Kings  xv.  16  with  verse  32. 

3.  The  method  just  mentioned  suggests  the  SOUTCGS 
from  which  the  materials  were  mostly  drawn,  viz. 
some  such  state  records  of  the  two  kingdoms  as  are 
named  respectively  the  "Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the 
Kings  of  Israel "  (mentioned  seventeen  times ;  see 
1  Kings  xiv.  19,  etc.)  and  the  "  Book  of  the  Chronicles 
of  the  Kings  of  Judah "  (fourteen  times  ;  see  I  Kings 
xiv.  29,  etc.)  From  the  reign  of  Solomon  onwards  there 
are  formal  notices  of  records  of  this  kind  (1  Kings  xi.  41); 
the  few  instances  where  they  do  not  occur,  being  cases  in 
which  the  reigns  came  to  a  sudden  or  violent  end,  as 
those  of  Joram  of  Israel  and  Ahaziah  (2  Kings  ix.  21-28) 
and  the  last  kings  of  the  two  lines,  viz.  Hoshea  of  Israel, 
and  Jehoahaz,  Jehoiachin,  and  Zedekiah  of  Judah. 

4.  The  same  circumstance  explains  why  indications 
of  different  dates  appear  in  the  books.  The  closing 
verses  bring  down  the  history  to  the  thirty-seventh  year 
of  the  captivity  (2  Kings  xxv.  27);  yet  the  author,  in- 
corporating his  materials,  was  apparently  not  careful  to 
adjust  the  dates  to  his  own  time  ;  as  when  he  tells  us 
that  the  staves  of  the  ark  remained  in  their  place  "unto 
this  day"  (1  Kings  viii.  8),  and  that  "  Israel  rebelled 
against  the  house  of  David  unto  this  day  "  (xii.  19). 

§  49.   Covering  as  they  do  so  wide  an  expanse 


THE  BOOKS  OF  KINGS 


of  time,  the  books  can  only  give  a  condensed 
account  of  the  history ;  and,  owing  to  the  plan,  a 
great  deal  that  would  have  been  interesting  is 
never  touched  upon.  In  regard  to  the  more 
external  relations  of  the  kingdoms,  our  knowledge 
has  been  supplemented,  and  the  accuracy  of  the 
books  confirmed,  by  the  monuments, — particularly 
those  of  Assyria.  The  books  of  Chronicles  also 
furnish  additional  details,  and  exhibit  the  history 
from  another  point  of  view.  But  the  writings  of 
the  prophets  who  flourished  in  the  period  of  the 
kings  are  of  special  value,  being  contemporaneous 
documents  bearing  upon  those  very  matters  which 
are  represented  as  most  vital  in  the  history. 

i.  The  knowledge  derived  from  the  monuments  is 
particularly  valuable  in  showing  the  causes  that  brought 
about  those  various  conflicts  with  foreign  powers,  which 
are  mentioned  by  the  sacred  writer.  They  enable  us 
also  to  fix  with  greater  precision  certain  important  dates. 
Thus  we  learn  that  about  David's  time  Egypt  was  dis- 
tracted with  internal  rivalries,  and  the  Assyrian  empire 
was  weak  ;  so  that  the  rapid  extension  of  territory  under 
David  and  Solomon  (2  Sam.  viii.  1-14  ;  1  Kings  iv.  21) 
is  the  more  easily  explained.  The  Egyptian  monuments, 
however,  tell  us  of  the  revival  of  military  conquest  under 
Shishak,  of  which  we  have  evidence  in  1  Kings  xiv. 
25,  26.  Assyria  also  soon  entered  on  a  new  career  ;  and 
the  reign  of  Shalmaneser  II.,  from  B.C.  858  to  823, 
was  a  long  series  of  victories,  extending  his  power  to  the 
Mediterranean.  By  this  time  the  kingdom  of  Syria  or 
Damascus,  which  had  grown  at  the  expense  of  Solomon 
(1  Kings  xi.  23-25),  was  the  most  formidable  power  in 
the  West ;  and  at  the  battle  of  Karkar  (B.C.  853),  where 
he  defeated  a  confederated  force,  the  names  of  the  king 
of  Damascus  and  of  Ahab  of  Israel  who,  as  we  know 
from  1  Kings  xx.  34,  became  allies,  occur  in  the  list  of 

6 


82    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

conquered  kings.  It  must  have  been  about  this  time 
also,  that  Mesha,  King  of  Moab,  was  enabled  to  throw 
off  the  yoke  of  Israel  (2  Kings  iii.  5),  a  fact  recorded 
on  the  famous  Moabite  Stone.  On  the  death  of 
Shalmaneser,  the  attention  of  Assyria  being  turned  in 
another  direction,  Hazael  of  Damascus  and  his  successor 
Benhadad  III.  were  able  to  harass  Israel  (2  Kings  xiii. 
3).  When,  however,  Jeroboam  II.  had  shaken  off  the 
Syrians  and  extended  his  own  dominions  at  their  expense, 
we  are  not  astonished  to  learn  that  Rimmon-nirari  (810- 
781),  the  grandson  of  Shalmaneser,  found  it  easy  to 
reduce  Damascus  to  vassalage.  The  decline  of  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  after  Jeroboam's  death  (see  §  47,  2), 
was  owing  not  only  to  the  weakness  of  its  own  rulers, 
but  to  the  growing  power  of  Assyria.  A  military  ad- 
venturer named  Pul  (2  Kings  xv.  19),  had  seized  the 
throne,  B.C.  745,  and,  under  the  name  of  Tiglath- 
pileser  II.  (2  Kings  xv.  29)  set  up  what  is  known  as 
the  second  Assyrian  empire.  After  consolidating  his 
power  in  his  own  dominions,  he  came  to  the  West,  and 
at  Arpad,  near  Aleppo,  had  a  decisive  victory  in  740, 
which  made  him  the  arbiter  of  the  fates  of  all  the  king- 
doms in  Western  Asia.  Among  his  tributaries  are  men- 
tioned Uzziah  of  Judah  and  Menahem  of  Israel.  Ahaz 
of  Judah  also  invoked  his  aid  against  the  combination  of 
Israel  and  Syria  ;  and,  finally,  when  in  732  Damascus 
was  taken  and  its  inhabitants  carried  away,  Ahaz  was 
among  the  princes  who  assembled  to  honour  the  conqueror 
(2  Kings  xvi.  5-10;  comp.  Isaiah  viii.  6,  7).  The 
strong  hand  of  Assyria  was  not  relaxed  by  Tiglath- 
pileser's  successor,  Shalmaneser  IV.,  for  it  was  he 
that  besieged  Samaria;  and  when  it  was  taken  in  722 
by  Sargon,  his  general  and  successor  (2  Kings  xvii.  5, 
6),  nothing  then  stood  between  Assyria  and  the  little 
kingdom  of  Judah.  Hezekiah  continued  to  pay  the 
tribute  which  had  been  exacted  from  his  father  Ahaz,  till 
a  new  complication  arose  by  the  appearance  at  Jerusalem 
of  the  ambassadors  of  Merodach-baladan  (2  Kings 
xx.    12  ;  comp.   Isaiah  xxxix.    1).     This  was  a  chief  of 


THE  BOOKS  OF  KINGS  83 

Babylonia  who  was  struggling  for  the  independence  of 
his  country,  and  had  sent  ambassadors  to  Palestine  and 
Egypt  to  secure  allies  against  Assyria.  Before,  however, 
they  had  time  to  take  concerted  action  Sargon  came  upon 
them  (B.C.  711),  and  Hezekiah  was  one  of  the  first  to 
suffer.  To  this  invasion  of  Sargon,  in  all  probability,  we 
have  reference  in  various  parts  of  Isaiah,  particularly 
chaps,  x.,  xi. ;  but  more  prominence  is  given  to  an 
invasion,  ten  years  later,  of  his  son  Sennacherib,  who 
came  to  enforce  supremacy  over  the  disaffected  local 
kings.  His  miraculous  discomfiture  before  Jerusalem 
is  narrated  in  2  Kings  xviii.  13-xix.  35.1  He  was 
succeeded  by  Esar-haddon,  to  whom,  and  also  to  his 
successor  Assur-bani-pal,  Manasseh  of  Judah  was  tribut- 
ary. After  the  death  of  Assur-bani-pal,  the  Sardan- 
apalus  of  the  Greeks,  the  vast  empire  of  Assyria  gives 
signs  of  breaking  up.  Elam  was  threatened  by  the 
Persians,  Babylonia  was  becoming  independent,  and  the 
invasion  of  Scythians  from  the  north  caused  general 
consternation  in  Western  Asia.  The  power  of  Assyria 
being  relaxed,  we  are  able  to  understand  how  Josiah 
found  no  difficulty  in  extending  his  dominion  over 
Samaria  (2  Kings  xxiii.  15,  19),  and  how  the  Egyptians 
also  turned  their  thoughts  to  Asiatic  conquest.  It  was 
in  disputing  the  passage  of  Pharaoh-necoh  that  Josiah 
was  killed  at  Megiddo  (xxiii.  29,  30)  ;  but  the  Egyptians 
were  soon  afterwards  (in  B.C.  606)  defeated  at  Carche- 
mish,  on  the  Euphrates,  by  Nabopolassar,  king  of 
Babylonia,  which  had  now  succeeded  Assyria  as  the 
great  eastern  empire  ;  and  from  that  time  onwards,  the 
Babylonians  were  undisputed  masters  of  Western  Asia. 
The  name  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  son  of  Nabopolassar, 
is  associated  with  the  overthrow  of  Jerusalem  (B.C.  588) ; 
and  his  son,  Evil-Merodach,  is  on  the  throne  when  the 
narrative  of  the  books  of  Kings  breaks  off. 

1  It  is  now  generally  believed  that  it  was  Sargon,  not  Sennacherib, 
that  invaded  Palestine  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  Hezekiah.  The 
sacred  writer,  thinking  of  the  two  invasions  together,  gives  more 
prominence  to  the  later  one.  See  Nicol's  Recent  Explorations  in 
Bible  Lands,  chap.  xvi. 


84    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    XVI 

THE    PROPHETS 

§  50.  The  prophets  were  a  series  of  men  appear- 
ing throughout  the  history  of  Israel,  claiming  to 
be,  and  acknowledged  to  be,  in  a  special  manner, 
exponents  of  God's  will,  interpreters  of  His  deal- 
ings, and  teachers  of  their  nation.  They  seem 
all  to  have  exercised  such  functions  towards  the 
people  of  their  own  times,  and  a  number  of  them 
have  left  written  compositions,  embodying  their 
teaching. 

1.  The  function  of  the  prophet  is  described  in  Deut. 
xviii.  15-22.  It  is  indicated  by  the  various  names  applied 
to  the  prophets,  as  "seer"  (1  Sam.  ix.  9  ;  2  Sam.  xxiv. 
11);  "man  of  God"(l  Sam.  ii.  27);  "watchman" 
(Jer.  vi.  17)  ;  "messenger  of  the  Lord"  (Hagg.  i.  13). 
It  is  denoted  also  by  the  manner  in  which  the  revelation 
of  God's  will  was  made  to  them,  as  the  "hand  of  the 
Lord"  (Jer.  i.  9;  Ezek.  i.  3,  etc.);  "spirit  of  the 
Lord"  (Mic.  hi.  8)  ;  "word  of  the  Lord"  (Isa.  i.  10); 
"burden"  or  oracle  (Isa.  xiii.  I,  R.V.  marg.)  ;  "  vision  " 
(Isa.  i.  1);  and  very  frequently  "  saith  the  Lord" 
(Isa.  i.  18,  24,  etc.),  or  "thus  saith  the  Lord"  (Jer.  ix. 

15.  etc-)  ,  .  _    , 

2.  Moses,  who  was  pre-eminently  a  spokesman  of  God, 

is  a  typical  prophet  (see  Deut.  xviii.  15  ;  Hos.  xii.  13). 


THE  PROPHETS  85 

Abraham  also  is  called  a  prophet  (Gen.  xx.  7)  ;  and 
even  David  by  St.  Peter  in  Acts  ii.  30.  The  office 
was  not  hereditary,  nor  confined  to  any  class.  Jeremiah 
(Jer.  i.  1)  and  Ezekiel  (Ezek.  i.  3)  were  priests;  Amos 
was  a  herdman  (Amos  i.  I  ;  vii.  14) ;  and  there  are  some 
instances  of  prophetesses,  as  Deborah  (Jud.  iv.  4), 
Huldah(2  Kings  xxii.  14),  Noadiah  (Neh.  vi.  14).  But 
from  the  time  of  Samuel  onwards  (see  Acts  iii.  24)  there 
were,  particularly  in  the  northern  kingdom,  associations 
presumably  for  the  training  of  those  who  were  to  exercise 
the  prophetic  office  (1  Sam.  x.  5  ff.  ;  xix.  18  ff.  ;  I  Kings 
xx.  35  ;  2  Kings  ii.  3  ff.  ;  iv.  38,  42  ff.  ;  v.  22  ;  vi.  I  ; 
ix.  1). 

3.  The  intimate  connection  of  the  prophets  with  the 
events  of  their  time  is  seen  not  only  in  such  outstanding 
men  as  Samuel,  Elijah,  and  Elisha,  but  in  the  cases  of 
Nathan,  Gad,  and  others  who  have  left  no  written 
prophecies  (2  Sam.  xii.  1-15  ;  1  Kings  i.  11-39  ;  2  Sam. 
xxiv.  II  j  1  Kings  xi.  29-31;  xiv.  7  ff .  ;  xii.  22-24; 
2  Chron.  xv.  I  ff.  ;  xvi.  7  ff.  ;  xix.  2  ;  xx.  14).  See  also 
§  39>  4  5  §  4^5  2,  3.  Of  the  writing  prophets  also  it  is 
true  that  we  can  only  comprehend  their  position  by  re- 
membering that  they  were  men  of  their  time,  and 
spoke  with  reference  to  events  that  were  seen  by  those 
whom  they  addressed.  We  shall  not,  however,  do  full 
justice  to  their  words  unless  we  remember  that  they  were 
men  above  their  time,  seeing  things  in  a  better  light 
and  in  different  relations  from  their  contemporaries, — and 
also  men  for  all  time,  giving  utterance  to  truths  which 
were  not  fully  unfolded  in  the  dispensation  under  which 
they  lived. 

4.  The  writings  of  the  prophets  exhibit  the  greatest 
variety,  not  only  because  the  circumstances  and  times  of 
each  varied,  but  because  the  individuality  of  the  prophet 
himself  was  left  in  full  activity.  Not  only  "at  sundry 
times"  but  "in  divers  manners"  God  "spake  in  time 
past  unto  the  fathers  by  the  prophets  "  (Heb.  i.  1). 

§  51.   The  books  of  the  writing  prophets  are 


86    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

all,  with  the  exception  of  Daniel,  found  in  the 
second  division  of  the  Hebrew  Canon,  though  not 
in  chronological  order.  The  three  great  books, 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel,  stand  in  the  histori- 
cal order  of  the  men  whose  names  they  bear ;  but 
of  the  twelve  minor  prophets,  two  at  least  (Hosea 
and  Amos)  are  earlier  than  Isaiah,  and  the  three 
at  the  end  (Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi)  are 
later  than  the  captivity. 

I.  The  history  of  Israel  may  be  divided  roughly  into 
certain  periods  according  to  the  ascendency  of  successive 
powers  in  and  about  Palestine.  These  may  be  here 
indicated,  for  the  sake  of  greater  convenience  in  referring 
the  prophetic  and  other  writings  to  their  respective 
dates  : — 


(a)  Syrian  period 

(b)  Assyrian 

(c)  Chaldean 
(d)  Persian 

(e)  Grecian 
(f)  Maccabaean 
(g)  Roman 


beginning  about  870  B.C. 

>i  750    „ 

,,  625    ,, 

.,  538    „ 

33i     » 


,,  63     ,, 

For  details  of  the  first  three  periods,  compare  §  49,  I. 
For  the  Persian  period,  see  particularly  §§  72,  74)  88, 
and  91.  The  Grecian  period  begins  with  the  supremacy 
of  Alexander  of  Macedon,  and  embraces  the  time  during 
which  Palestine  was  successively  under  the  domination 
of  the  Ptolemies  of  Egypt  (from  about  300  B.C.)  and  the 
Seleucidae  of  Syria  (from  about  200  B.C.)  The  Macca- 
baean dynasty  is  otherwise  named  Asmonaean,  or 
Hasmonaean. 


THE  BOOK  OF  ISAIAH  87 


CHAPTER    XVII 

THE    BOOK    OF    ISAIAH 

§52.  The  prophet  Isaiah,  though  he  is  not  the 
earliest  of  the  writing  prophets,  may  be  described 
as  the  greatest  of  them  ;  for  the  book  that  bears 
his  name,  in  the  variety,  beauty,  and  force  of  its 
style,  and  in  the  sublimity  of  its  contents,  takes 
the  foremost  place  in  the  prophetical  literature. 
Little  is  recorded  of  his  private  life,  but  he 
exercised  his  public  office  during  a  long  and  most 
eventful  period  of  the  national  history. 

1.  From  himself  we  learn  that  he  was  married  and 
that  he  had  at  least  two  sons,  to  whom  he  gave  symbolical 
names  (vii.  3  ;  viii.  3,  18).  In  the  book  of  Chronicles 
he  is  mentioned  as  a  writer  of  history  (2  Chron.  xxvi. 
22  ;  xxxii.  32).  A  Jewish  tradition  makes  his  father 
Amoz  a  brother  of  King  Amaziah  (no  doubt  with  a  desire 
to  explain  his  great  influence  at  the  court) ;  and,  accord- 
ing to  another  often-repeated  tradition,  he  suffered  martyr- 
dom in  the  reign  of  Manasseh,  by  being  sawn  asunder. 

2.  The  names  of  the  kings  under  whom  he  prophesied 
(i.  1)  do  not  give  us  a  precise  indication  of  the  duration 
of  his  active  life  ;  for  Jotham  was  for  years  associated 
on  the  throne  with  his  father  Uzziah  (2  Kings  xv.  5  ; 
2  Chron.  xxvi.  21) ;  and,  at  the  other  extremity,  we  are 
not  told  whether  Isaiah  survived  Hezekiah.      Reckoning, 


88    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

however,  from  the  death  of  Uzziah  (vi.  I ),  which  probably 
took  place  in  740  B.C.,  to  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib 
(xxxvi.,  xxxvii.),  which  happened  in  701  B.C.,  we  have 
at  least  a  period  of  forty  years  for  the  prophet's  active 
ministry.  The  events  that  occurred  in  this  period,  and 
furnished  occasion  for  Isaiah's  public  teaching,  were  most 
momentous  in  their  bearing  on  the  fortunes  of  the  two  king- 
doms (§  49,  1).  The  long  and  prosperous  reign  of  Uzziah 
(2  Kings  xv.  1-3  ;  2  Chron.  xxvi.  1-23)  was  succeeded  by 
the  Syro-Ephraimitic  war  waged  by  Rezin  of  Damascus 
and  Pekah  of  Israel,  first  against  Jotham  and  then  against 
his  son  Ahaz  (2  Kings  xv.  37  ;  xvi.  5  ff. ;  compare  2  Chron. 
xxviii.  5  ff.) ;  during  which  the  great  Assyrian  power 
appears  on  the  stage  and  calls  forth  the  prophet's  pre- 
diction of  the  fall  of  Judah's  confederate  enemies  (Isa. 
vii.,  viii.)  Soon  after  (in  734)  followed  the  subjugation 
of  Syria  and  Samaria  by  Tiglath-pileser,  and  the  capture 
of  Damascus  in  732  (2  Kings  xvi.  7  ff. ;  xv.  29  ;  2  Chron. 
xxviii.  16  ff.  ;  Isa.  xvii.  1-3).  Then  came  the  fall  of 
Samaria  itself  in  722  B.C.,  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah 
(2  Kings  xvii.  3  ff. ;  xviii.  9  ff.  ;  Isa.  xxviii.  I  ff. ),  followed 
by  the  military  operations  of  Sargon  against  Palestine 
and  Egypt  (Isa.  x.,  xx. )  And  still  more  closely  came 
the  shadow  of  impending  trouble  when  the  host  of 
Sennacherib  invaded  Judah  in  701  B.C.,  and  his  ambassa- 
dors taunted  the  people  of  Jerusalem  under  its  very 
walls  (2  Kings  xviii.  13-xix.  37  ;  Isa.  xiv.  24-27  ;  xvii. 
12-14;  xxxiii.)  All  these  movements,  in  their  bearings 
upon  Judah  and  the  neighbouring  nations,  as  well  as  the 
attitude  of  Egypt  (xix.,  xxx.)  and  the  growing  importance 
of  Babylon  (xiii.  i-xiv.  23  ;  xxxix.),  furnished  matter  for 
the  prophet's  teaching  during  what  must  have  been  a 
harassed  and  busy  life. 

§  53.  In  keeping  with  the  varied  and  extensive 
experience  of  the  prophet,  the  book  of  Isaiah  is 
very  diversified  in  its  contents,  according  to  the 
subject  treated  and  the  tone  of  address  or  treat- 
ment that  was  suited  to  each  case.      The  parts  are 


THE  BOOK  OF  ISAIAH  89 

not  arranged  chronologically,  and  in  many  cases 
we  are  left  to  discover  their  reference  from  the 
subject-matter.  The  book  falls,  however,  into  two 
great  divisions  : — 

1.  Part  First  (i.-xxxix.)  consists  mostly  of  independ- 
ent pieces,  sometimes  furnished  with  special  headings 
(ii.  I  ;  xiii.  I  ;  xv.  I,  etc.),  or  introduced  by  historical 
notices  (vi.  1  ;  vii.  1  ;  xiv.  28,  etc.)  ;  at  other  times  with- 
out any  such  indication  (x.  5  ;  xxiv.  I  ;  xxviii.  I,  etc.) 
In  most  instances  they  have  the  appearance  of  being  the 
written  deposit  of  verbal  utterances  ;  but  some  may  be 
comprehensive  statements  of  whole  periods  of  prophetic 
activity  (e.g.  ii.-v.  ;  vii.  i-ix.  6;  xxviii. -xxxiii. )  As  to 
the  subjects  of  these  prophecies,  it  will  be  observed  that 
there  are  two  groups  of  mainly  home  prophecies,  viz. 
those  in  chaps  i.-ix.  7,  relating  to  Judah  and  Jerusalem, 
and  those  in  chaps,  xxviii. -xxxiii.,  relating  both  to  Judah 
and  Samaria  ;  while  those  contained  in  ix.  8-xxvii.  13  re- 
fer to  foreign  nations,  with  the  exception  of  two,  contained 
in  chap.  xxii. ,  against  Jerusalem  and  against  Shebna. 
Chaps,  xxxiv.,  xxxv.  are  more  general  (in  this  respect  re- 
sembling xxiv.  to  xxvii.),  referring  to  judgment  coming 
on  all  nations;  and  chaps,  xxxvi.-xxxix.,  which  are  his- 
torical, relating  particularly  to  Hezekiah's  sickness  and 
the  campaign  of  Sennacherib,  have  their  counterpart  in  2 
Kings  xviii. -xx. 

2.  Part  Second  (xl.-lxvi.)  is  broadly  distinguished 
from  Part  First,  both  in  literary  form  and  in  subject- 
matter.  It  has  the  appearance  of  being  one  sus- 
tained composition  rather  than  a  number  of  spoken 
addresses  ;  and  whereas  the  situation  in  the  first  part  was 
the  Assyrian  period  in  which  Isaiah  lived,  the  standpoint 
here  is  the  time  of  the  exile,  and  the  tone  is  mainly  that 
of  consolation  in  the  near  prospect  of  deliverance,  the 
name  of  Cyrus,  who  gave  the  edict  permitting  the 
return  (B.C.  536),  being  expressly  mentioned  (xliv.  28  ; 
xlv.  1).  We  cannot  doubt  that  the  deportation  of  the 
ten  tribes,  and  the  ominous  threatening  of  a  similar  fate 


90    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

for  Judah,  had  accustomed  Isaiah  to  the  thought  of  the 
captivity  and  its  ultimate  issues.  So  that,  if  these 
chapters  are  from  his  hand,  we  must  assume  that,  in 
spirit,  he  placed  himself  in  the  exile,  and,  from  that  as  a 
prophetic  standpoint,  depicted  the  restoration  and  the 
final  glory.  Most  modern  critics,  however,  think  that 
these  chapters  are  an  anonymous  production  of  the  exile, 
which  was  united  to  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah.  They 
generally  hold  also  that  some  passages  in  the  first  part, 
referring  distinctly  to  Babylon  (see  xiii.  i-xiv.  23  ;  xxi. 
1- 10),  are  likewise  of  late  date.  But  it  is  evident  that, 
by  the  time  of  Hezekiah,  the  power  of  Babylon  was 
sufficiently  formidable  to  call  forth  special  prophetic  utter- 
ances (see  xxxix.)  This  second  part  may  be  divided  into 
three  sections,  marked  by  a  similar  refrain,  "  There  is  no 
peace,  saith  my  God,  to  the  wicked  "  :  viz.  (a)  chaps, 
xl.-xlviii.,  in  which  the  dominant  note  is  comfort;  {b) 
chaps,  xlix.-lvii.,  in  which  the  suffering  servant  is  pro- 
minent;  and  (c)  chaps,  lviii.-lxvi.,  which  dwell  on  the 
future  glory.  The  most  striking  conception  of  the  book 
is  that  of  "the  servant  of  the  Lord,"  who  is  sometimes 
Israel  as  a  whole  (xlii.  19),  sometimes  the  faithful  or 
true  Israel  (xliv.  I,  2,  21),  and  rises,  especially  in  the 
middle  portion  (lii.  13-liii.  12),  into  a  mysterious  Person 
who  makes  atonement  for  His  people  and  brings  in  the 
final  glory. 

§  54.  In  all  the  characteristics  of  a  true  pro- 
phet (§  50,  3)  Isaiah  is  pre-eminently  great.  He 
stands  in  time  midway  between  Moses  and  Christ  ; 
and  he  has  been  fitly  called  the  evangelical  pro- 
phet, for  no  other  book  of  the  Old  Testament 
anticipates  so  fully  as  this  the  truth  that  was  at  last 
revealed  in  the  Gospel. 

1.  In  speaking  to  the  men  of  his  time,  Isaiah  is  bold 
in  denouncing  sin  (i.,  v.,  etc.),  fearing  neither  king  nor 
people  (vii.  1-13),  faithful  to  the  nation's  God  where 
faithless  men  abound  (xxx.,  xxxi.) 


THE  BOOK  OF  ISAIAH  91 

2.  But  while  actively  engaged  in  the  affairs  of  his  time, 
he  seems  ever  to  live  in  the  near  presence  of  the  High  and 
Holy  One,  who  appeared  to  him  at  the  inauguration  of 
his  work  (vi.)  The  God  in  whose  name  he  speaks  is  one 
whose  holiness  will  assert  itself  in  the  subduing  of  every- 
thing that  is  proud  and  lofty  (ii.  12  ff.),  in  the  triumphing 
over  all  evil  (ii.  19,  21),  and  finally  will  manifest  itself  in 
a  glorious  reign  of  peace  and  righteousness.  And  this 
conception  furnishes  the  prophet's  idea  of  the  duty  of  the 
true  Israel :  viz.  to  fear  humbly  before  such  a  God,  and 
to  believe  in  His  faithfulness.  They  who  do  so  are  the 
faithful  remnant  (iv.  3;  vi.  13,  etc.)  who  shall  be  pre- 
served through  all  troubles  (viii.  7-10,  etc.),  the  stock  of 
a  new  people  in  the  kingdom  that  is  to  come  (vii. ,  viii. 
21-ix.  7). 

3.  In  this  way  the  prophet  is  led  by  the  Divine  Spirit  to 
give  most  solemn  anticipations  of  the  revelation  of 
Jesus  Christ  (see  ii.  2  ff.  ;  vii.  14;  viii.  8,  10;  ix. 
2-7  ;  xi.  1-9,  etc.)  In  the  second  part  of  the  book 
these  prophetic  intimations  are  startling  in  their  vividness. 
And  it  is  to  be  remarked  here  that,  even  if  these  chapters 
were  not  written  by  Isaiah  of  Jerusalem,  but  by  some 
prophet  of  the  captivity,  their  similarity  to  the  rest  of  the 
book  in  style  and  spirit,  which  has  caused  them  to  be  in- 
cluded in  the  work  of  Isaiah,  shows  the  carrying  out  of 
the  lofty  ideas  which  he  himself  expressed.  No  one 
denies  that,  by  whomsoever  written,  they  must  have  been 
penned  some  centuries  before  Christ,  and  that  they  only 
find  their  sufficient  accomplishment  in  His  atoning  death, 
and  the  glory  that  follows. 


92    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    XVIII 
THE   BOOK    OF   JEREMIAH 

§55.  Unlike  Isaiah,  the  prophet  Jeremiah  has 
given  us  so  many  details  of  his  personal  history 
that  we  are  able,  from  the  book  which  bears  his 
name,  to  construct  an  intelligible  biography.1  He 
is  later  in  time  than  Isaiah,  and,  like  him,  he  exer- 
cised the  prophetic  office  during  a  most  critical 
period  of  the  nation's  history.  Isaiah  saw  the 
northern  kingdom  swept  away,  and  foresaw  the 
downfall  of  the  southern  ;  it  was  Jeremiah's  lot  to 
see  the  ruin  of  Judah  and  the  carrying  away  of  its 
people  into  captivity. 

1.  He  was  of  the  priestly  city  of  Anathoth,  near 
Jerusalem  (i.  1),  and  his  father  Hilkiah  is  by  some 
identified  with  the  high  priest  who  discovered  the  law-book 
in  the  eighteenth  year  of  Josiah  (2  Kings  xxii.  8).  He 
was  called  to  the  work  at  an  early  age  (i.  6),  was 
unmarried  (xvi.  2),  and  exercised  his  ministry  partly 
in  his  native  place  (xi.  21  ff. ),  but  mostly  in  Jerusalem 
(xi.  6),  from  the  thirteenth  year  of  Josiah  till  after  the 
exile,  i.e.  a  period  of  forty  years  (B.C.  626-586).  It  was 
a  life  of  Sorrow  and  suffering,  in  which  he  had    to 

1  The  following  chapters  are  particularly  full  of  personal  details  : 
xi.    21-xii.    6;    xxvi.,   xxxvi.,   xx.  ;    xxi.    1-10;    xxxvii.,    xxxviii. 
xxxii.,  xxxix.-xliv. 


THE  BOOK  OF  JEREMIAH  93 

bear  the  reproaches  of  priests  and  high  officials  (xx.  2  ; 
xxxvii.  13),  and  even  harsh  treatment  at  the  hands  of 
the  populace  (xi.  19;  xxvi.  8,  9),  the  military  party 
(xxxviii.  4),  and  the  king  himself  (xxxvi.  20  ff.)  ;  with 
only  occasional  support  from  the  elders  (xxvi.  1 7  ff. )  and 
the  lower  classes  (xxxviii.  7  ff.)  The  times  in  which  he 
lived  would  have  tried  the  heart  of  the  most  courageous  ; 
and  the  prophet  was  naturally  of  a  despondent  and  timid 
disposition.  Hence  we  find  a  tone  of  sadness  and  weari- 
ness running  through  the  whole  book,  and  Jeremiah  has 
been  called  the  weeping  prophet  (see  ix.  1,2;  xv.  10  ;  xx. 
14-18).  He  was  carried  to  Egypt  by  the  exiles  who  fled 
thither  (xliii.  6),  and,  according  to  the  tradition,  he  was 
stoned  to  death  in  that  country. 

2.  The  activity  of  Jeremiah  is  intimately  bound  up 
with  the  momentous  events  that  culminated  in  the  down- 
fall of  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  We  lose  sight  of  the 
prophet  Isaiah  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  after  the  dis- 
comfiture of  Sennacherib  (B.C.  701) ;  and  it  is  not  till  B.C. 
626  that  Jeremiah  appears  on  the  scene.  The  interval 
is  filled  up  with  the  impious  reign  of  Manasseh  (B.C. 
685-641),  the  brief  reign  of  Anion  (640-639),  and  the 
first  thirteen  years  of  that  of  Josiah  (Jer.  i.  2).  It  was  in 
the  reign  of  Manasseh  that  Egypt  burst  the  yoke  of  sub- 
mission to  Assyria  ;  and  when  Josiah  came  to  the  throne 
it  had  become  a  power  to  be  feared  or  courted  by  the  pol- 
itical parties  at  Jerusalem.  Jeremiah  had  been  for  five 
years  an  acknowledged  prophet  when  Josiah's  reformation 
took  place  (Jer.  i.  2  ;  comp.  2  Kin.  xxii.  3  ff.),  and  he  no 
doubt  anxiously  watched,  but  was  not  deceived  by,  the 
events  of  the  twelve  years  that  followed,  for  the  improve- 
ment was  mainly  superficial,  and  the  hopes  that  had  been 
raised  were  quenched  by  the  death  of  the  king  in  his  en- 
counter with  the  Egyptians  at  Megiddo.  Soon  thereafter 
the  Assyrian  empire  was  brought  to  an  end  (B.C.  607),  and 
Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  now  master  of  the 
East,  broke  the  Egyptian  power  at  the  battle  of  Carchem- 
ish  (B.C.  605),  in  the  fourth  year  of  King  Jehoiakim. 
It  was  in  this  same  year  that  the  prophet,  who  saw  that 


94    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

there  was  now  no  hope  of  saving  the  state,  sent  Baruch  to 
read  in  public  the  roll  containing  his  prophecies  (xxxvi.) 
In  vain,  however,  did  Jeremiah  seek  to  recall  his  people 
to  a  better  mind,  in  vain  did  he  counsel  them  to  submit 
to  Babylon  and  look  not  to  Egypt  for  help.  Jehoiakim, 
refusing  to  pay  tribute,  was  attacked  by  the  forces  of  Baby- 
lon (2  Kings  xxiv.  2),  killed,  and  ignominiously  buried, 
as  the  prophet  had  foretold  (Jer.  xxii.  18,  19  ;  xxxvi. 
30).  His  successor  Jehoiachin  had  only  reigned  three 
months  when  Nebuchadnezzar  carried  king  and  people 
into  captivity,  leaving  behind  only  what  the  prophet  de- 
scribes as  "  naughty  figs,  which  could  not  be  eaten,  they 
were  so  bad"  (xxiv.  2);  and  even  these  also  were 
destined  soon  to  be  carried  away.  Among  this  remnant, 
during  the  expiring  throes  of  the  nation's  life,  the  prophet 
exercised  the  latter  part  of  his  ministry,  now  protected  by 
king  Zedekiah  as  far  as  his  feeble  protection  could  avail, 
then  caught  and  treated  as  a  deserter,  and  at  last 
imprisoned  in  a  dungeon,  obtaining  deliverance  finally  at 
the  hands  of  the  Babylonians  when,  in  the  eleventh  year 
of  Zedekiah,  the  city  was  sacked  and  the  temple  burnt. 
Permitted  to  remain  at  Jerusalem  under  Gedaliah  the 
governor,  he  strove  in  vain  to  restrain  the  people  from 
their  evil  ways.  His  friend  the  governor  was  cruelly 
murdered,  and  the  murderers  carried  the  prophet  himself 
with  them  to  Egypt,  where  we  last  hear  of  him,  still  pro- 
testing against  the  idolatry  of  his  countrymen  (xliv. ) 

§  56.  The  book  of  Jeremiah  contains  prophecies 
given  forth  by  him  on  various  occasions,  with 
many  historical  details  relating  to  the  prophet  and 
his  time.  Many  of  the  prophecies  are  introduced 
by  statements  of  the  time  at  which  they  were 
delivered  ;  the  occasion  of  others  has  to  be  inferred 
from  themselves.  In  regard  to  the  composition 
of  the  book  as  a  whole  we  have  more  precise 
indications  than  is  usually  the  case  with  the  Old 
Testament  books. 


THE  BOOK  OF  JEREMIAH  95 

1.  The  book  as  it  stands  may  be  roughly  divided 
into  :  (a)  prophecies  relating  chiefly  to  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  (i.-xlv.);  (b)  discourses  directed  against  foreign 
nations  (xlvi.-li. ) ;  (c)  a  historical  appendix  on  the  siege 
and  capture  of  Jerusalem  (Hi.) 

In  the  main  the  prophecies  seem  to  be  arranged  in 
historical  order,  yet  sometimes  prophecies  relating  to 
the  same  subject  are  placed  together,  although  belonging 
to  different  times  ;  and  sometimes  historical  sections  are 
disjoined  from  prophecies  to  which  they  relate.  In  the 
LXX.  Version  the  collection  of  foreign  prophecies  (xlvi.- 
li.)  comes  after  chap.  xxv.  13  ;  and  it  is  to  be  remarked 
that  the  Greek  translation  of  the  book  of  Jeremiah  as  a 
whole  diverges  more  from  the  Hebrew  text  than  is  the 
rule  in  that  version — being  for  the  most  part  briefer.  It 
is  very  probable  that  the  closing  chapters,  and  perhaps 
other  passages  in  the  book,  have  been  revised  by  a  hand 
later  than  Jeremiah. 

2.  We  are  told  in  chap,  xxxvi.  how,  in  the  fourth  year 
of  king  Jehoiakim,  Jeremiah,  at  God's  command,  caused 
Baruch  to  write  in  a  roll  all  the  words  that  had  been 
spoken  to  him  "against  Israel,  and  against  Judah,  and 
against  all  the  nations  .  .  .  from  the  days  of  Josiah  even 
unto  this  day  "  ;  and  how,  when  the  roll  was  burned  by 
the  king,  another  was  written  containing  "many  like 
words  "  besides.  This  second  roll  no  doubt  formed  the 
nucleus  of  the  present  book,  which,  as  seems  to  be 
indicated  in  i.  1-3,  would  receive  additions  after  the  time 
referred  to.  We  may  with  great  probability  assign  the 
prophecies  in  chaps,  i.-vi.  to  the  reign  of  Josiah;  those 
in  vii.-xx.  to  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  ;  and  those  in  xxi.- 
xxxviii.  to  the  reign  of  Zedekiah. 

§  57.  In  the  midst  of  his  own  sorrow,  and  even 
in  the  deepest  despondency,  Jeremiah  is  faithful 
to  his  task  as  a  prophet,  and  bold  in  declaring  the 
word  of  the  Lord.  Though  his  message  was 
largely  directed    to    immediate  affairs,   it  pointed 


96    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

forward   to   a  better  dispensation,  and  his  words 
have  a  meaning  for  all  time. 

i.  We  see  fidelity  to  his  calling  triumphing  over 
natural  timidity  throughout  his  life.  See  his  own  words 
(xx.  8,  9).  He  seems  ever  to  have  been  conscious  of 
the  assurance  given  to  him  at  his  call  (i.  8  ;  xv.  20). 
And  his  faith  in  God's  promise  is  illustrated  in  his  pur- 
chase of  a  field  when  the  ruin  of  the  country  was  imminent 
(xxxii. ) 

2.  The  truths  mainly  insisted  on  by  Jeremiah  are  : 
(a)  that  mere  attention  to  worship  or  veneration  for  its 
forms  is  worthless  (vii.  21-23;  "*•  l&  '■>  vn-  8-11)-  The 
law  must  be  written  on  the  heart  (iv.  4,  14  ;  xvii.  9  ; 
xxxi.  33).  (b)  Consequently  the  individual  rather  than 
the  state  is  the  object  of  divine  regard  (v.  I  ;  ix.  1-6  ; 
xviii.)  (e)  In  thus  condemning  the  old,  Jeremiah  antici- 
pates a  new  order  of  things.  Though  he  says  little  of  a 
personal  Messiah,  he  prepares  His  way  (see  xxiii.  5-8  ; 
xxx.  4-1 1  ;  xxxiii.   14-26). 


THE  BOOK  OF  EZEKIEL  97 


CHAPTER   XIX 

THE    BOOK    OF    EZEKIEL 

§58.  The  prophet  Ezekiel  was  one  of  the  cap- 
tives taken  to  Babylon,  in  the  first  captivity  of 
Judah,  along  with  Jehoiachin  in  the  year  B.C.  597 
(xxxiii.  2 1  ;  xl.  1  ;  compare  i.  2).  He  was  thus 
contemporary  with  Jeremiah  and  survived  him. 
His  prophetic  activity  began  five  years  after  he 
was  taken  captive  (i.  1-3),  and  extended  at  least 
over  twenty-two  years  ;  for  the  last  date  mentioned 
in  his  book  is  the  year  570  (xxix.  17),  which  was 
sixteen  years  after  the  deportation  of  Jeremiah  to 
Egypt. 

1.  Ezekiel,  unlike  Jeremiah,  gives  few  details  of  his 
private  life.  He  was  the  son  of  Buzi,  of  a  priestly 
family  ;  lived  among  the  exiled  Israelites  at  a  place 
called  Tell  Abib  ;  was  married,  and  had  a  house  of  his 
own  (xxiv.  18  ;  viii.  1).  He  was  resorted  to  for  advice 
and  guidance  by  the  elders  of  the  captivity  (viii.  1  ;  xiv. 
1  ;  xx.  1  ;  compare  xxxiii.  30).  There  is  a  tradition  that 
he  was  put  to  death  in  Babylonia  by  a  prince  of  his  own 
people  whom  he  had  reproved  for  idolatry. 

2.  The  national  events  that  occurred  in  the  life- 
time of  Ezekiel  are  for  the  most  part  those  in  which 
Jeremiah  had  a  prominent  part  (§   55,  2).      In  whatever 


98    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

sense  we  take  "the  thirtieth  year"  to  which  he  alludes 
(i.  i),1  Ezekiel  must  have  been  familiar  from  boyhood 
with  the  person  and  work  of  Jeremiah  ;  and,  up  to  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  though  he  was  in  exile,  the 
fortunes  of  his  native  land  formed  the  subject  of  his 
prophecies.  One  of  the  most  striking  passages  in  the 
book  is  the  lament  over  the  princes  of  Israel  (xix.),  in 
which,  under  the  figure  of  the  whelps  of  a  lioness,  he 
represents  the  fate  of  Jehoahaz,  who  was  carried  captive 
to  Egypt  (vv.  1-4;  compare  2  Kings  xxiii.  31-34  ;  Jer. 
xxii.  10-12),  and  of  Jehoiachin,  who  was  taken  to  Baby- 
lon (vv.  5-9).  Of  the  external  circumstances  of  his  life 
in  Babylon,  the  prophet  tells  us  very  little. 

§  59.  The  book  seems  to  be  arranged  chrono- 
logically, and  naturally  falls  into  two  divisions,  of 
twenty-four  chapters  each,  corresponding  to  the 
two  great  periods  of  the  prophet's  life.  He  saw 
the  national  catastrophe  and  survived  it,  and  his 
book  is  occupied  with  two  great  subjects  :  I.  The 
ruin  of  the  city  and  state  (i.-xxiv.)  II.  Pro- 
phecies of  future  restoration  and  glory  (xxv.- 
xlviii.)  The  treatment  throughout  is  highly  sym- 
bolical ;  and  chaps,  xl.-xlviii.  are  quite  unique  in 
Old  Testament  literature. 

I.  The  first  division  (i.-xxiv.)  consists  of  the  fol- 
lowing parts  : — (a)  In  the  first  year  of  his  ministry 
(i.-vii.)  :  the  prophet's  call  and  mission  to  the  exiles 
(i.-iii.  21)  ;  and  symbolical  prophecies  of  the  overthrow 
of  the  city  (iii.  22-vii.  27).  (/>)  In  the  following  year 
(viii.-xi.)  :  more  precise  prophecies  against  the  city, 
because  of  its  idolatries  (viii. );  and  the  symbolical  de- 
parture of  the  Lord  from  the  temple  (ix.-xi.)  (<r)  Later, 
but  not  dated  (xii. -xix.)  :   reasons  for  the  destruction  of 

1  Some  think  it  was  the  thirtieth  year  of  his  own  age;  others, 
that  he  dates  from  the  accession  of  Nabopolassar  (625  B.C.),  while 
others  think  we  are  to  count  from  the  reform  of  Josiah  (621). 


THE  BOOK  OF  EZEKIEL  99 

the  state  —  unbelief  and  giving  heed  to  false  prophets 
(xii.-xiv.)  ;  certainty  of  the  event,  however  painful 
(xv.-xvii.)  ;  yet  a  new  order  of  things  shall  follow 
(xviii.)  (</)  Two  years  from  the  prophet's  call  (xx.- 
xxiii.)  :  the  necessity  of  the  doom,  in  that  Jehovah's 
name  has  been  profaned  (xx.),  and  the  iniquity  of  Israel 
is  now  full  (xxi. -xxiii.)  (t>)  After  several  years,  and 
when  Nebuchadnezzar  had  begun  the  siege  of  Jerusalem 
(xxiv. ):  the  symbol  of  the  caldron,  to  signify  the  siege 
and  dispersion. 

2.  The  second  division  (xxv.-xlviii.)  consists  of 
the  following  parts  :  (a)  Preparatory  to  the  restoration  ; 
judgments  on  the  nations  round  about  Israel  (xxv.-xxxii.) 
(/•>)  The  restoration  itself;  the  conditions  of  the  new 
kingdom  (xxxiii.),  and  descriptions  of  the  ruler  (xxxiv.), 
the  land  (xxxv.,  xxxvi. )  and  the  people  (xxxvii. )  The 
Lord's  defence  of  His  people  in  the  latter  day  (xxxviii., 
xxxix.)  (c)  The  final  glory  of  the  redeemed,  as  seen 
in  the  vision  of  the  temple  (xl.-xliii. ),  its  services 
(xliv.-xlvi.),  and  the  condition  of  the  land,  with  its  life- 
giving  river  issuing  from  the  temple  (xlvii. ),  and  the 
arrangement  of  the  tribes  (xlviii.) 

3.  The  symbolism  which  is  characteristic  of  Ezekiel's 
style  shows  itself  (a)  in  highly  figurative  language,  as  in 
the  comparison  of  Tyre  to  a  stately  ship  (xxvii.),  etc.  ; 
(/;)  in  symbolical  actions,  such  as  are  employed  also  by 
other  prophets  (compare  1  Kings  xxii.  1 1  ;  Isa.  xxi.  ; 
Jer.  xix.  10  ;  xxviii.  2,  10  ;  li.  59-64).  There  may  be 
reason  to  doubt  whether  all  these  actions  were  performed 
by  the  prophets  in  the  literal  sense  of  the  words.  Some 
of  them  certainly  (see  iv.,  v.)  seem  to  be  ideal,  and 
suited  to  impress  rather  in  the  written  page  than  by  out- 
ward form,  (c)  In  visions.  With  one  of  the  grandest 
of  these  the  book  opens  (i.),  and  chaps,  xl. -xlviii.  are 
quite  apocalyptic,  and  have  strongly  influenced  the 
imagery  of  the  book  of  the  Revelation  in  the  New 
Testament. 

§  60.    In   his  teaching  Ezekiel    shows  that  he 


ioo  OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

had  been  influenced  by  that  of  Jeremiah  ;  and  he 
carries  out  into  greater  detail,  and  enforces  with 
more  emphasis,  the  great  truths  which  that  prophet 
taught.      In  particular  : — - 

1.  He  insists  upon  the  responsibility  of  the  indi- 
vidual ;  combating  the  prevailing  ideas  of  his  time  that 
the  people  suffered  for  the  sins  of  their  fathers  (xviii.  2), 
and  that  they  were  under  a  ban  which  no  repentance 
could  remove  (xxxiii.   10). 

2.  Like  Jeremiah,  he  pronounces  condemnation  on 
the  past  history  of  Israel,  and  accuses  them  of  idolatry 
even  in  Egypt  (xvi.  ;  xx.  7,8;  xxiii.  3,  8  ;  compare  Jer. 
vii.  25  ;  xvi.   12). 

3.  Being  of  priestly  family,  like  Jeremiah,  he  shows 
great  zeal  for  the  Law  (xx.)  and  clothes  his  vision 
of  the  final  glory  in  forms  borrowed  from  the  Temple 
and  its  service  (xl.-xlviii. )  Yet  no  two  prophets  teach 
more  distinctively  the  inward  spiritual  character  of 
religion. 

4.  Though  the  new  order  of  things  is  to  be  based  on 
individual  heart  religion,  it  will  be  a  Messianic  king- 
dom (xvii.  22-24),  w^h  "David"  as  prince  for  ever 
(xxxvii.  24,  25). 


THE   TWELVE  MINOR  PROPHETS        101 


CHAPTER     XX 

THE    TWELVE    MINOR    PROPHETS 

§  6 1.  The  twelve  prophetical  writings  which  from 
the  earliest  times  the  Jews  have  classed  together 
as  one  book,  are  called  the  minor  prophets,  solely 
on  account  of  their  size.  The  whole  taken  together 
do  not  equal  the  book  of  Isaiah  in  bulk  ;  but  though 
"brief  in  words,"  they  are  "mighty  in  meaning." 
They  belong  to  different  dates  within  the  whole 
period  of  about  four  centuries  which  is  covered  by 
written  prophecy  ;  and  in  literary  style,  as  in 
subject-matter,  they  exhibit  the  greatest  variety 
and  individuality. 

i.  It  was  no  doubt  because  they  were  of  small  compass 
that  they  were  taken  together  and  written  on  one  roll. 
The  Jewish  name  given  to  them  is  simply  the  "  Twelve." 

2.  Jerome  was  of  opinion  that  the  whole  of  the  twelve 
are  arranged  in  chronological  order.  Others  arrange 
them  in  three  groups,  according  to  historical  periods  : 
viz.  Hosea  to  Nahum  belonging  to  the  pre- Assyrian 
and  Assyrian  periods  ;  Habakkuk  and  Zephaniah  to  the 
Chaldean  period  ;  and  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi 
to  the  post-exilic  period  (§  51,  1).  There  are,  however, 
great  differences  of  opinion  as  to  the  dates  of  some  of 
them.      In  our  version  the  order  of  the  Hebrew  canon  is 


102    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

retained  ;  but  in  the  LXX.  the  order  of  the  first  six  is  : 
Hosea,  Amos,  Micah,  Joel,  Obadiah,  and  Jonah. 

HOSEA 

§  62.  Hosea  was  a  native  of  the  kingdom  of 
the  ten  tribes,  and  is  the  only  prophet  of  that 
kingdom  from  whom  we  have  written  prophecies. 
He  has  told  us  either  very  little  or  a  great  deal  of 
his  personal  history,  according  as  we  understand 
the  opening  chapters  of  his  book.  From  the 
heading  (i.  1)  we  gather  that  he  was  an  early 
contemporary  of  Isaiah  ;  but  he  must  have  ceased 
his  ministry  before  the  fall  of  Samaria. 

1.  We  conclude  that  he  belonged  to  the  northern 
kingdom  from  the  special  acquaintance  with  it  which  he 
exhibits,  and  his  almost  exclusive  reference  to  its  affairs. 
Some  take  chaps,  i.-iii.  in  the  literal  sense  that  Hosea's 
wife  proved  unfaithful  to  him,  and  that  through  his  love 
to  her  he  was  led  to  understand  the  unquenchable  love 
of  God  to  Israel.      Others  take  the  whole  as  an  allegory. 

2.  Hosea  could  not  have  prophesied  during  the  full 
reigns  of  all  the  kings  mentioned  in  i.  1.  Probably  he 
began  his  work  in  the  latter  end  of  Jeroboam's  reign 
(which  closed  B.C.  749)  and  ceased  about  the  accession 
of  Pekah  (in  B.C.  736),  since  he  does  not  mention  the 
deportation  of  Israelites  by  Tiglath-pileser  in  734  (2  Kings 
xv.  29).  It  was  a  time  of  rapid  changes  and  revolution- 
ary movements  [see  §  47,  2  (c)]  ;  and  some  have  seen  in 
various  passages  of  Hosea  allusions  to  some  of  those 
events.1 

1  Some,  e.g.,  apply  chap.  vi.  8  to  the  murder  of  Zechariah  by 
Shallum,  who  is  called  the  son  of  Jabesh  (2  Kings  xv.  10),  though 
others  refer  it  to  the  event  recorded  in  2  Kings  xv.  25.  More  definite 
are  the  allusions  in  viii.  10,  probably  to  the  Assyrians  then  in  the 
land  ;  and  in  x.  6,  to  the  tribute  paid  to  the  Eastern  Empire  (compare 
2  Kings  xv.  19,  20).  If  Shalman  (x.  14)  stands  for  Shalmaneser,  it 
can  hardly  be  the  king  who  laid  final  siege  to  Samaria,  but  must  be 
an  earlier  king  of  the  same  name. 


THE   TWELVE  MINOR  PROPHETS         103 

§  63.  The  contents  of  the  book  of  Hosea  have 
the  appearance  of  being  rather  a  summary  of  his 
teaching  than  a  series  of  spoken  discourses.  It  is 
not  easy  to  classify  the  portions  or  to  observe  the 
principle  of  arrangement,  though  some  think  it  is 
chronological.  This  arises  in  great  measure  from 
the  style,  which  is  somewhat  broken  and  abrupt, 
owing  to  the  emotional  character  of  the  prophet. 
There  are,  however,  passages  of  great  poetic 
beauty,  and  the  one  great  thought  that  fills  the 
prophet's  mind, — the  love  of  God,  is  kept  in  view 
throughout. 

1.  Analysis  of  the  book.  Chaps,  i.-iii.,  whether 
literal  or  symbolical,  furnish  the  key  to  the  whole.  Israel, 
the  faithless  spouse,  is  throughout  personified,  and  the 
several  discourses  in  the  sequel  (iv.-xiv. )  exhibit  in  various 
aspects  the  unfaithfulness  that  had  characterised  the  whole 
history  and  was  prevalent  at  the  time.  Thus  in  iv.  1- 
v.  7  we  have  reproof  of  glaring  immorality  ;  in  vi.  4- 
vii.  16  treachery  and  sinful  foreign  alliances;  in  viii., 
ix.  a  godless  monarchy  and  a  polluted  worship  ;  and  x., 
xi.  point  out  how  inveterate  and  deep-seated  the  sin  has 
been.  but  even  in  his  direst  threatenings  the  prophet 
breaks  off  into  tender  entreaty  (vi.  1-3)  ;  and  ends  with 
the  final  triumph  of  Divine  love  (xii.-xiv. ) 

2.  The  following  passages  in  later  prophets  show  great 
resemblances  to  the  thoughts  of  Hosea  :  Jer.  ii.,  iii., 
xxxi.  31  ff.  ;  Ezek.  xvi.,  xxiii.  The  references  to  Hosea 
in  the  New  Testament  should  also  be  studied  :  with  chap. 
vi.  6,  comp.  Matt.  ix.  13,  xii.  7  ;  with  chap.  xi.  I,  comp. 
Matt.  ii.  15  ;  and  with  chap.  ii.  23,  comp.  Rom.  ix.  25,26. 

JOEL 

^  64.   Of  the  personal  history  of  Joel,  son  of 
Pethuel,  we  know   nothing.      His   date  has  to  be 


104    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

determined,  if  possible,  by  a  consideration  of  the 
general  situation  implied  in  the  book,  and  by  any 
references  to  historical  events  that  it  furnishes. 
The  main  subject  of  the  book  is  clear  and  the 
contents  well  arranged.  In  style  the  work  takes 
a  first  rank  among  prophetic  literature  ;  and  in  its 
teaching  it  points  significantly  forward  to  the  New 
Testament  dispensation. 

i.  As  he  confines  his  national  view  to  Judah  and 
Jerusalem,  it  is  concluded  that  he  was  a  native  of  the 
capital.  Some  have  supposed,  from  the  prominence  he 
gives  to  the  Temple  service  (see  i.  and  ii. ),  that  he  was 
a  priest. 

2.  Contents.  Joel's  prophecy  was  occasioned  by  a 
severe  visitation  of  drought  and  locusts,  in  view  of  which 
he  delivered  two  highly  pictorial  discourses,  calling  to 
repentance  and  supplication  (i.  and  ii.  i - 1 7).  These 
form  the  first  part  of  the  book.  The  second  part  re- 
fers to  the  future.  The  plague  is  removed,  so  that  the 
wasted  years  are  restored  (ii.  18-27)  ;  and  this  leads  to 
the  prophecy  that  "afterward"  the  Divine  Spirit  will 
be  poured  out  upon  all  flesh,  and  then,  with  signs  in 
heaven  and  on  earth,  shall  come  "the  great  and  terrible 
day  of  the  Lord"  (ii.  28-31).  In  this  great  consumma- 
tion "  whosoever  shall  call  on  the  name  of  the  Lord  shall 
be  delivered  :  for  in  mount  Zion  and  in  Jerusalem  there 
shall  be  those  that  escape"  (ii.  32,  R.V.);  while  the 
"nations"  shall  be  gathered  into  the  valley  of  Jehosha- 
phat  {i.e.  "Jehovah  judges")  and  trodden  in  the  winepress 
of  the  Divine  anger  (iii.  1-21). 

3.  Some  have  interpreted  the  locusts  (i. ,  ii. )  figura- 
tively of  enemies  of  Israel,  the  four  names  (i.  4;  ii.  25) 
being  taken  to  represent  four  great  empires  (as  in  Dan. 
vii. ,  etc.)  Others  explain  them  ideally,  like  the  locusts 
of  the  Apocalypse  (Rev.  ix.)  But  Joel's  description, 
though  highly  poetical,  is  true  to  the  life,  and  the  four 
names   are   elsewhere   applied    to   the   locust,   and   may 


THE   TWELVE  MINOR  PROPHETS        105 

indicate  stages  of  its  growth.  The  heavy  hand  of  God 
on  nature,  in  an  agricultural  country  like  Palestine  and 
to  the  prophetic  mind,  was  sufficient  to  suggest  to  Joel 
his  great  theme,  the  "  day  of  the  Lord." 

4.  The  indications  of  date  are  so  obscure  that  very 
divergent  views  have  been  held  on  the  subject,  and  pos- 
sibly we  have  proof  of  this  uncertainty  in  the  place 
the  book  occupies  in  the  LXX.  Version  (see  §61,2).  It 
is  generally  agreed  that  the  book  must  be  dated  either 
very  early  {e.g.  in  the  infancy  of  Joash,  i.e.  before  B.C. 
850;  see  2  Kings  xi.  1-3)  or  very  late  (viz.  after  the 
time  of  Nehemiah,  B.C.  445),  the  main  reasons  in  either 
case  being  the  absence  of  reference  to  a  king,  or  to 
Assyria  or  Babylonia,  and  the  prominence  given  to  the 
priests  and  the  Temple  service.  The  advocates  of  the 
early  date  explain  these  facts  by  the  minority  of  the  king, 
the  regency  of  Jehoiada  the  priest,  and  the  circumstance 
that  the  great  eastern  powers  had  not  yet  extended  to 
Palestine.  Those  who  maintain  the  late  date  say  that 
the  facts  are  best  explained  on  the  supposition  that  the 
powers  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia  had  come  to  an  end, 
that  the  community  at  Jerusalem  was  under  the  rule  of 
priests  with  a  regular  Temple  service,  and  that  the  king- 
dom of  the  ten  tribes  (which  is  not  mentioned)  had  been 
swept  away.  There  are  references  to  other  enemies  of 
Psrael  (iii.  4,  6,  8,  19)  ;  but  these  are  difficult  of  ex- 
planation on  either  view,  owing  mainly  to  our  defective 
knowledge  of  the  history.  The  style  of  the  book  gives 
no  indication  of  a  late  date  ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  under- 
stand its  being  placed  between  the  earlier  prophetical 
books  of  Hosea  and  Amos,  if  it  was  of  post-exilian  origin. 

5.  The  prophecy  of  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit  (ii. 
28-32)  is  particularly  alluded  to  by  St.  Peter  in  Acts  ii. 
16-21  ;  and  St.  Paul  quotes  the  promise  of  the  call  of 
the  Gentiles  (ii.  32)  in  Rom.  x.   13. 


io6    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


AMOS 

§  65.  From  Amos  himself  (whose  name  is 
spelled  differently  from  that  of  the  father  of  Isaiah) 
we  learn  some  interesting  particulars  of  his  personal 
history.  He  was  a  native  of  Tekoa  (i.  1),  a  place 
about  twelve  miles  S.S.E.  from  Jerusalem.  He 
did  not  belong  to  any  of  the  prophetic  societies 
(§  45,  2  ;  §  50,  2),  but  was  a  herdman  and  a 
dresser  of  sycomore  trees  (vii.  14,  R.V.)  Though 
a  native  of  the  south,  he  prophesied  in  the  northern 
kingdom,  and  was  reproved  for  his  plain  speaking 
by  Amaziah,  the  priest  of  Bethel  (vii.  10  ff.)  In 
date  he  is  to  be  placed  a  little  before  Hosea,  prob- 
ably not  later  than  about  B.C.  760,  and  he  is  very 
frequently  spoken  of  as  the  earliest  of  the  writing 
prophets  (but  compare  §  64,  4,  §  66,  1,  and  §  67). 
If  this  is  the  case,  his  book  is  all  the  more  remark- 
able for  its  finished  style,  its  high  moral  tone,  and 
the  wide  view  of  history  which  it  exhibits. 

1.  Tekoa  was  an  outlying  frontier  place  (see  2  Chron. 
xi.  6)  and  seems  to  have  been  famed  for  the  ready  wit  of 
its  inhabitants  (2  Sam.  xiv.  2). 

2.  The  time  in  which  Amos  prophesied  was  one  of 
the  greatest  prosperity  in  both  kingdoms.  It  may  be 
that  in  chap.  vi.  14  we  have  an  indication  of  the  exten- 
sion of  territory  which  was  effected  by  Jeroboam  II.  (2 
Kings  xiv.  25)  ;  and  the  sins  for  which  the  prophet 
rebuked  Israel  are  such  as  generally  follow  a  condition 
of  material  prosperity,  viz.  luxury,  with  its  hardening  in- 
fluence on  the  affections  and  its  ministering  to  vice,  along 
with  worship  scrupulously  observed  but  devoid  of  spiritual 
life.  It  is  not  clear  whether  all  the  prophecies  in  the 
book  were   spoken   at   one   time.      Some   suppose   that, 


THE   TWELVE  MINOR  PROPHETS         107 

being   driven   from   Bethel,    the    prophet   retired    to   his 
native  place,  and  there  wrote  his  book. 

3.  Contents.  The  book  may  be  divided  into  three 
parts  :  (a)  Chaps,  i.,  ii. — a  prophetic  survey  and  denun- 
ciation of  the  neighbouring  nations  for  their  breaches 
of  the  Divine  law,  ending  with  Judah  and  Israel. 

(/>)  Chaps,  iii.-vi. — three  discourses  against  Israel, 
each  beginning  with  "Hear  this":  viz.  (1)  declaration 
of  the  necessity  of  God's  threatened  judgment  (hi.)  ; 
(2)  reproofs  of  oppression^  idolatry,  and  impenitence 
(iv. )  ;  and  (3)  denunciations,  in  three  parts,  against  the 
grinding  of  the  poor  (v.  1  - 1 7),  formal  worship  (v.  18-27), 
and  luxury  and  wantonness  (vi. ) 

(c)  Chaps,  vii.-ix. — visions,  still  of  a  threatening 
kind  :  viz.  the  locust  (vii.  1-3),  fire  (vii.  4-6),  the  plumb- 
line  (vii.  7-9,  and  here  comes  the  encounter  with  the  priest 
of  Bethel,  vii.  10-17),  the  basket  of  summer  fruit  (viii.), 
and  a  vision  of  the  Lord  (ix.) 

4.  If  Amos  is  the  earliest,  or  one  of  the  earliest,  of  the 
writing  prophets,  his  book  is  remarkable  {a)  as  show- 
ing that  literary  composition  had  by  his  time  been  well 
developed  and  long  practised  ;  (b)  as  proving  that  pro- 
phetic activity  and  influence  were  well-established  facts 
(ii.  11  ;  iii.  7),  a  testimony  all  the  more  striking  in  that 
he  himself  belonged  to  no  prophetic  guild  ;  and  (c)  as 
exhibiting  in  fulness  and  freshness  the  same  great  thoughts 
that  are  found  in  all  written  prophecy.  The  primary 
message  of  the  prophet,  as  befitted  the  time  in  which  he 
lived,  was  a  condemnation  of  sin  in  its  various  prevailing 
forms  ;  but  the  God  whose  messenger  he  was  is  repre- 
sented by  him  as  the  moral  governor  of  the  whole  earth 
(ix.),  who,  jus-t  because  He  was  the  God  of  Israel,  would 
visit  upon  His  people  their  iniquities  (iii.  2  ;  ix.  7,  8).  Yet, 
though  the  "  day  of  the  Lord,"  for  which  the  careless  pro- 
fessed to  long,  would  be  a  day  of  judgment  (v.  18,  19),  the 
faithful  would  be  preserved,  the  Davidic  house  would  be 
set  up  more  firmly,  and  the  world  blessed  in  the  coming 
glory  (ix.  9-15). 


io8    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


OBADIAH 

§  66.  Of  the  prophet  Obadiah  himself  nothing 
is  known.  The  subject  of  the  brief  book  which 
bears  his  name  is  a  denunciation  against  Edom  for 
hostility  shown  to  Israel,  leading  up  to  an  announce- 
ment of  the  "  day  of  the  Lord."  But  the  occasion 
of  the  prophecy  cannot  be  very  clearly  determined, 
and  accordingly  there  have  been  (probably  from 
an  early  time,  see  §  61,  2  ;  compare  §  64,  4)  different 
opinions  about  the  date  of  the  book. 

1.  The  hostility  of  Edom,  the  "brother"  of  Israel 
(Obad.  10  ;  compare  Gen.  xxxii.  3),  is  seen  throughout 
the  history.  The  country  was  subjected  to  the  sway  of 
David  (2  Sam.  viii.  14),  but  shook  off  the  yoke  in  the 
reign  of  Joram,  the  son  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Kings  viii.  20- 
22).  Again  the  Edomites  were  subdued  by  Amaziah 
and  Uzziah  (2  Kings  xiv.  7,  221),  and  again  they  asserted 
their  freedom  in  the  time  of  Ahaz  (2  Kings  xvi.  6 ;  2  Chron. 
xxviii.  17).  On  none  of  these  occasions,  however,  do 
we  hear  of  Edom  taking  part  in  the  infliction  of  such  a 
"calamity"  on  Judah  as  Obadiah  describes  (vv.  10-16), 
unless  the  brief  reference  to  the  time  of  Ahaz  (2  Chron. 
xxviii.  17)  be  so  taken.  Some  have  supposed  that  the 
allusion  is  to  the  incursion  of  Philistines  and  Arabians  in 
the  reign  of  Joram,  referred  to  in  2  Chron.  xxi.  16,  in 
which  it  is  supposed  the  Edomites  took  part  (see  2  Kings 
viii.  20) ;  in  which  case  the  date  of  the  book  would  be 
about  B.C.  850  and  Obadiah  would  be  the  earliest  writing 
prophet  (see  §  65).  It  is  very  generally  felt,  however, 
that  the  description  of  Judah's  "calamity"  (vv.  10-16) 
can  only  apply  to  the  final  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Chaldeans.  The  prophets  who  lived  about  that  time 
certainly  utter  heavy  denunciations  against   Edom  (see 

'  Elath  or  Eloth  was  "on  the  shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  in  the  land  of 
Edom  "  (1  Kings  ix.  26). 


THE  TWELVE  MINOR  PROPHETS         109 

Jer.  xlix.  7-22;  Ezek.  xxv.  12-14;  xxxv.  ;  compare  Lam. 
iv.  21  ;  Ps.  cxxxvii.  7),  though  they  indicate  that  the 
hostility  was  of  long  standing  (Ezek.  xxxv.  5),  and  we 
find  the  same  feeling  expressed  in  the  early  prophet  Amos 
(i.  6,  9,  II  ;  ix.  12).  There  is  a  passage  in  Jeremiah 
(xlix.  7- 1 6)  which  so  strongly  resembles  some  verses  in 
Obadiah  (1-6,  8)  that  a  common  origin  must  be  assigned 
to  them  ;  and,  since  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  against  the 
nations  (Jer.  xlvi.-li.)  were  pronounced  before  the  captiv- 
ity (see  Jer.  xxv.  13),  if  he  borrowed  from  Obadiah,  the 
date  of  the  latter  must  be  earlier.  The  view  is  now,  how- 
ever, held  by  many  that  this  little  book  of  Obadiah  con- 
tains an  old  prophecy  (vv.  1-9)  against  Edom  (which 
Jeremiah  also  employed),  and  that  this  was  expanded  by 
a  later  writer  and  applied  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
It  was  not  unusual  for  prophets  thus  to  adopt  and  enlarge 
earlier  oracles.  Compare  Isa.  ii.  2-5  with  Micah  iv.  1-5, 
and  Jer.  xlviii.  with  Isa.  xv. ,  xvi. 

2.  There  are  some  remarkable  resemblances  between 
Obadiah  and  Joel.  Compare,  e.g.,  ver.  11  ("cast  lots") 
with  Joel  iii.  3  ;  ver.   15,  etc.,  with  Joel  iii.   14,  etc. 


JONAH 

§  67.  "  Jonah,  the  son  of  Amittai,"  was  the 
name  of  a  prophet,  of  Gath-hepher  in  Galilee,  who 
in  the  days  of  Jeroboam  II.  foretold  the  extension 
of  territory  that  was  to  be  effected  by  that  king  (2 
Kings  xiv.  25).  He  was  therefore  earlier  than  Amos 
(§  65),  for  Jeroboam's  death  is  to  be  placed  about 
B.C.  750.  But  the  work  before  us  has  nothing  in 
its  contents  to  lead  us  to  identify  it  with  the  pro- 
phecy referred  to.  Indeed,  it  is  rather  a  book 
about  Jonah  than  a  collection  of  his  utterances  ; 
and  it  is  so  different  in  form  from  any  other  of  the 
prophetical  writings,  among  which  it  has  a  place, 


no    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

that  very  great  varieties  of  opinion  have  been  held 
as  to  its  meaning  and  purpose. 

1.  The  contents  of  the  book  are  familiar.  Jonah, 
commissioned  to  go  and  cry  against  Nineveh,  takes  ship 
to  flee  to  Tarshish  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord.  A 
storm  arises,  and  Jonah,  indicated  by  lot  as  the  cause  of 
it,  is  cast  into  the  sea,  which  then  becomes  quiet  ;  and 
the  prophet,  saved  by  a  great  fish,  prays  unto  the  Lord 
in  his  trouble.  A  second  time  he  is  ordered  to  go  to 
Nineveh,  and  this  time  proclaims  his  message,  "Yet 
forty  days  and  Nineveh  shall  be  overthrown."''  The 
Ninevites,  alarmed,  fast  and  put  on  sackcloth  ;  the  Lord 
repents  of  the  evil  ;  and  the  prophet,  disappointed  at  the 
result,  sits  under  a  booth  "till  he  might  see  what  would 
become  of  the  city."  The  Lord  teaches  him,  by  his  grief 
at  the  withering  of  a  gourd,  the  lesson  of  Divine  com- 
passion on  man  and  beast. 

2.  The  form  of  the  book  is  thus  historical  ;  and,  if 
we  omit  the  second  chapter,  the  whole  reads  continuously. 
It  is  observable,  however,  that  the  book  ends  abruptly, 
without  any  proper  conclusion  of  the  story  /  and  this  and 
other  peculiarities  have  given  occasion  to  diverse  opinions 
as  to  the  meaning  and  purpose  of  the  whole.  These 
have  varied,  according  as  the  book  has  been  considered 
more  or  less  strictly  historical,  from  a  literal  interpretation 
of  the  whole  to  one  entirely  mythical.  Between  these 
extremes  different  accounts  have  been  given  of  its  teach- 
ing, as,  e.g. ,  that  it  was  designed  to  show  that  salvation 
can  only  come  from  God,  and  that  its  ultimate  ground 
lies  in  the  Divine  love  ;  or  that  prophecy  is  conditional 
on  repentance,  and  that  a  prophet  may  not  seek  to  evade 
the  Divine  call.  One  truth,  however,  is  so  strongly  en- 
forced at  the  close, — the  all-embracing  love  of  God,  with- 
out respect  of  persons  or  nations, — that  it  has  led  in  modern 
times  to  another  view  of  the  book,  which  may  be  called 
the  allegorical  or  parabolical  explanation.  According  to 
this  view,  Jonah  is  the  representative  of  Israel  as  a  whole, 
which  for  unfaithfulness  to  its  mission  to  the  world  was 


THE  TWELVE  MINOR  PROPHETS         in 

delivered  into  captivity  (the  "great  fish")  ;  from  which 
being  delivered,  it  was  again  set  as  a  witness  to  the 
heathen.  But  instead  of  rising  to  the  Divine  purpose, 
Israel  took  more  and  more  delight  in  its  own  little 
dignity  and  exclusiveness  (the  "gourd"  being  the  Temple, 
etc.),  and  needed  to  be  reproved  for  not  perceiving  God's 
purpose  of  love.  In  support  of  this  view  it  has  been 
pointed  out  that  Jeremiah  (li.  34,  44)  speaks  of  the 
captivity  under  the  figure  of  a  devouring  animal  (com- 
pare Isa.  xxvii.  1);  and  in  another  passage  (xviii.  7,  8) 
teaches  the  very  truth  that  was  taught  to  Jonah.  On 
this  supposition,  the  book  would  be  later  in  date  than 
Jeremiah,  and  would  exhibit  a  conception  of  religion  and 
of  Israel's  calling  that  was  not  common  in  earlier  books. 
3.  If  the  Psalm  in  chap.  ii.  is  read  by  itself  (vv.  2-9), 
it  will  be  perceived  to  be  rather  an  expression  of  thanks- 
giving for  deliverance  (as  from  drowning)  than  a  prayer 
for  rescue.  Many  of  the  verses,  also,  are  found  in  various 
Psalms  (see  marg.  re/.),  some  of  which  are  of  late  date. 
These  features  have  led  some  to  conjecture  that  the 
symbolical  language  of  Jeremiah  just  alluded  to  was  at 
a  later  time  interpreted  literally,  and  the  Psalm  then 
inserted  as  appropriate  to  one  in  Jonah's  position. 


MICAH 

§  68.  No  fewer  than  eleven  persons  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament  bear  the  name  of  Micah ; 
and  one  of  these,  Micah,  son  of  Imlah,  was  a  pro- 
phet in  the  time  of  Ahab  and  Jehoshaphat  ( 1  Kings 
xxii.  8).  The  author  of  this  book  was  a  native  of 
Moresheth-gath,  a  place  in  Judah  ;  and  his  date 
is  fixed  sometime  before  the  destruction  of  Samaria 
(chap.  i.  1,  6  ;  compare  Jer.  xxvi.  18).  He  is  thus 
contemporary  with  Isaiah,  and  it  is  interesting  to 
compare  the  utterances  of  the   two  men,  the  one 


ii2    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

(Isaiah)  living  at  the  capital,  the  other  a  native  of 
the  country. 

i.  Contents.  The  book  of  Micah  seems  to  be  a 
summary  of  prophetic  utterances  given  forth  on  different 
occasions.  It  is  not  easy  to  perceive  the  connection  in 
several  places  ;  but  the  expression  "  Hear  ye,"  repeated 
three  times  (i.  2;  iii.  I  ;  and  vi.  i),  may  be  taken 
as  a  formal  mark,  dividing  the  book  into  three  Sec- 
tions, (a)  The  jirst  section  (i.,  ii. )  threatens  judgment, 
which  falls  first  on  Samaria  (i.  6-8),  and  then  reaches 
Judah  (i.  9).  A  vivid  description  (with  striking  word- 
plays on  the  names  of  the  places)  is  given  of  the  panic 
of  the  inhabitants  before  the  invader  (i.  10-16)  ;  and  the 
sins  are  enumerated  which  have  called  clown  this  severe 
judgment  :  viz.  idolatry  (i.  5,  7),  covetousness  and 
oppression  (ii.  1-5,  8,  9),  drunkenness  (ii.  11),  and  giving 
heed  to  false  teachers  (ii.  6-7,  11).  (0)  The  second 
section  (iii. -v.)  continues  the  strain  of  denunciation  and 
threatening  (iii.),  but  passes  on  to  glowing  predictions 
of  the  time  when  Zion  shall  be  the  religious  centre 
of  the  world  (iv.),  and  a  new  Davidic  king  shall  arise 
(v.  2-4),  whose  reign  shall  be  one  of  universal  peace 
(v.  5,  10-15).  (c)  The-  third  section  (vi.,  vii. )  is  more 
elegiac  in  tone  and  almost  dramatic  in  form.  The  Lord 
has  a  controversy  with  His  people  for  the  manner  in 
which  they  have  requited  His  goodness  (vi.  1-5);  and, 
touched  by  His  appeal,  they  ask  what  they  may  do  to 
serve  Him  (vi.  6,  7).  He  desires  nothing  but  doing  justly, 
loving  mercy,  and  walking  humbly  with  their  God  (vi.  8) ; 
but  since  these  have  been  wanting,  judgment  must  follow 
(vi.  9-16).  Then  follows  a  lament  over  the  general  cor- 
ruption (vii.  1-6)  ;  and  finally,  the  chastisement  being 
perhaps  supposed  to  have  fallen,  affliction  produces  in 
Israel  a  spirit  of  humility,  penitence,  and  hope,  and  the 
book  ends  with  confident  trust  in  a  God  who  delighteth 
in  mercy  (vii.  7-20). 

2.  As  compared  with  Isaiah  it  will  be  noted  that 

Micah  has  little  to  say  of  foreign  powers  and  raticnal 


THE   TWELVE  MINOR  PROPHETS         113 

politics  (such  as  would  engage  attention  at  the  capital), 
but  dwells  upon  the  oppression  of  the  poor  and  the 
peasant  classes  (see  ii.  2-5,  S-10;  iii.  1-3;  vi.  12). 
The  passage  iv.  1-5,  which  is  found  with  little  variation 
in  Isaiah  ii.  2-5,  may  possibly  be  quoted  by  both  from 
a  well-known  older  prophecy.  No  prophet  has  held  forth 
more  distinctly  than  Micah  the  Messianic  hope  of  the 
Old  Testament  (see  iv.   1-5  ;  v.  2-4  ;  vii.  18-20). 

NAHUM 

§  69.  The  prophet  Nahum  was  a  native  of 
Elkosh,  which,  on  the  authority  of  Jerome,  is  said 
to  have  been  in  Galilee,  though  another  tradition 
places  it  near  Mosul,  the  ancient  Nineveh.  Though 
no  date  is  prefixed  to  the  book,  the  time  of  its 
composition  can  be  approximately  determined  from 
two  references.  The  prophet  predicts  the  fall  of 
Nineveh,  which  took  place  B.C.  607  ;  and  he  speaks 
of  No-amon  or  Thebes  as  having  been  already 
destroyed  (iii.  8-10,  R.V.),  and  this  took  place  in 
r..C.  664.  Between  these  two  limits  the  actual 
date  has,  if  possible,  to  be  more  precisely  ascer- 
tained from  the  book  itself. 

1.  The  one  Subject  of  the  book  is  "the  burden  of 
Nineveh"  (i.  1)  ;  and  the  three  chapters  of  which  it  is 
composed  are  three  orderly  stages  in  one  connected 
whole.  In  chap.  i.  there  is  a  sublime  description  of  the 
God  who  taketh  vengeance  on  His  adversaries  (ver.  2),  but 
is  a  stronghold  to  His  own  in  the  day  of  trouble  (ver.  7), 
and  this  God  is  represented  as  about  to  execute  judgment 
on  His  people's  enemies.  Chap,  ii.,  depicting  most 
graphically  the  fall  of  Nineveh,  shows  us  the  besiegers 
(vv.  2-4)  and  the  besieged  (vv.  5-10),  and  ends  with  a 
taunting  proverb  against  what  had  been  a  den  of  lions 
(vv.   11-13).      In   chap.    iii.    the  prophet  returns  to  the 


ii4    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

description  of  the  terrors  of  the  siege  (vv.  2-4)  ;  and, 
varying  the  figure,  depicts  the  city  as  a  harlot,  and  exults 
over  her  fate  (vv.  5-7).  Her  end  shall  be  like  that  of 
No-amon,  and  all  her  traders  shall  be  like  locusts,  that 
take  wings  and  fly  away  (vv.  8-19). 

2.  Those  who  have  attempted  to  determine  more 
precisely  the  date  of  the  prophecy  point  out  that  Israel 
is  held  fast  by  Assyria  (i.  13)  ;  that  half  of  the  people 
(the  northern  kingdom)  has  been  emptied  out  (ii.  2)  ;  that 
the  enemy  has  passed  through  the  land  (i.  15)  ;  and,  if 
these  indications  are  meant  to  be  more  than  general 
descriptions,  they  may  point  to  the  heavy  pressure  of 
Assyria  upon  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Manasseh.  See  2 
Chron.  xxxiii.  1 1,  R.V. ,  and  compare  §  47,  3  and  §  49,  I. 

3.  The  style  of  Nahum  has  been  generally  remarked 
upon  for  its  vividness  in  description.  His  conception  of 
the  God  of  Israel  is  also  very  exalted.  There  is,  how- 
ever, an  absence  of  reference  to  the  specific  Messianic 
hope,  which  is  so  prominent  a  feature  of  Micah. 


HABAKKUK 

§  70.  This  prophet  belonged  to  Judah,  and  there 
is  a  tradition  that  he  was  of  a  Levitical  family, 
based,  no  doubt,  on  the  liturgical  terms  occurring 
in  chap.  iii.  1,  19.  He  naturally  comes  after 
Nahum.  That  prophet  foretold  the  destruction  of 
Nineveh,  and  Habakkuk's  great  theme  is  the 
downfall  of  the  Chaldean  power,  though  he  treats 
it  in  a  broad  and  general  manner.  His  date  is 
variously  fixed  according  as  the  presence  of  the 
Chaldean  on  the  soil  of  Palestine  is  regarded  as 
more  near  or  more  remote.  Habakkuk  has  a 
marked  individuality  both  in  style  and  tone  ;  and 
one  expression  he  employs  (ii.  4)  has  become 
historical  from  the  way  it  was  adopted  by  St.  Paul 


THE   TWELVE  MINOR  PROPHETS  115 

(Gal.  iii.  1 1)  and  by  Luther,  in  the  great  question 
of  justification  by  faith. 

1.  The  book  falls  into  two  parts  :  In  the  first  part 
(i.,  ii.)  the  prophet  complains  that  his  outcry  against 
violence  is  unheeded  (i.  1-4),  and  is  told  that  God  is 
raising  up  the  Chaldeans  to  inflict  punishment  (i.  5-1 1 ). 
But  this  only  perplexes  the  prophet,  who  reflects  on  the 
pride  and  wickedness  of  this  chosen  instrument  (i.  12- 
17);  and  he  resolves  to  retire  to  his  watch-tower  that 
he  may  have  his  doubts  solved  (ii.  1).  The  answer 
comes  in  an  oracular  form,  "  Behold,  his  soul  is  puffed 
up,  it  is  not  upright  in  him  :  but  the  just  shall  live  by 
his  faith"  (ii.  4,  R.V.),  and  this  will  be  proved  true  in 
fact,  though  it  should,  tarry  in  its  accomplishment  (ii.  2- 
3).  In  the  certainty  of  its  fulfilment  the  prophet  bursts 
forth  in  a  triumphant  taunting  parable,  consisting  of  five 
woes  directed  against  the  great  world-power  (ii.  5-20). 
The  second  part  (chap,  iii.)  is  a  psalm  or  hymn,  called 
"a  prayer  of  Habakkuk,"  in  which,  after  the  invocation 
(ver.  2  ;  comp.  ii.  4),  the  prophet  prays  for  the  execution 
of  judgment,  but  also  for  the  exercise  of  mercy.  Then 
follows  a  glorious  display  of  the  Divine  majesty  (vv.  3-7), 
the  result  of  which  is  the  consternation  of  God's  enemies 
(vv.  8-15),  but  on  the  prophet's  mind  quiet  confidence  in 
the  heaviest  trouble,  expressed  in  the  beautiful  hymn  at 
the  close  (vv.   16-19). 

2.  The  more  precise  date  is  to  be  determined  by 
consideration  of  such  passages  as  chap.  i.  5,  6,  in  which  the 
people  addressed  are  supposed  not  to  be  familiar  with  the 
Chaldeans,  and  the  succeeding  verses  (7-17),  in  which 
the  appearance  and  actual  ravages  of  the  invaders  seem 
to  be  described.  The  historical  events  that  help  us  in 
determining  the  date  are  :  the  destruction  of  Nineveh  (in 
B.C.  607),  when  the  power  of  Nabopolassar  was  coming 
to  its  height,  and  the  battle  of  Carchemish  (in  604),  when 
the  Chaldeans  gained  a  notable  victory  over  the  Egyptians 
(see  >i  49,  1,  end).  Such  events  would  bring  the 
Chaldeans  within  the  horizon  of  the  people  of  Judah,  and 


n6   OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

most  modern  writers  place  the  prophecy  about  this  time, 
in  (the  reign  of  Jehoiakim.  Others,  however,  carry  it 
back  to  the  reign  of  Josiah,  chiefly  on  the  ground  that 
the  prophets  Jeremiah  and  Zephaniah  are  supposed  to 
refer  to  the  book.  Compare  Hab.  i.  8  with  Jer.  iv.  13 
and  v.  6  ;  and  Hab.  ii.  20  with  Zeph.  i.  7.  But  the 
priority  may  be  the  other  way. 


ZEPHANIAH 

§71.  Of  the  personal  history  of  this  prophet  we 
know  nothing,  for,  though  his  genealogy  is  given 
for  four  generations  (i.  1 ),  we  are  not  told  whether 
the  Hezekiah  to  whom  it  is  traced  is  the  king  of 
Judah  of  that  name.  His  date  falls  "  in  the 
days  of  Josiah,"  who  reigned  B.C.  640  to  608, 
and  he  speaks  of  the  destruction  of  Nineveh  as 
still  in  the  future  (ii.  13).  His  book,  though  brief, 
is  comprehensive,  embracing  the  two  great  subjects 
of  prophetic  teaching,  judgment  (i.-iii.  8),  and 
salvation  (iii.  9-20), — and  these  extending  to  all 
nations. 

1.  Contents.  {a)  Destruction  is  about  to  fall, 
particularly  on  Judah  and  Jerusalem  (i.  1-6).  It  will  be 
a  day  of  sacrifice,  in  which  the  heathen  will  partake  (i. 
7),  and  the  chief  victims  are  court  officials  with  foreign 
manners  (i.  8,  9),  merchants  (i.  11),  and  the  indifferent 
ones  among  the  people  (i.  12).  It  will  be  a  clay  of 
wrath  calling  all  classes  to  repentance  (i.  13-ii.  3)  ;  and 
it  will  extend  to  the  neighbouring  Philistines,  Moabites, 
and  Ammonites  (ii.  4- n),  to  distant  Ethiopia  ami 
Nineveh  (ii.  12-15),  but  will  rest  most  heavily  on  Jeru- 
salem, for  "the  Lord  in  the  midst  of  her  is  righteous" 
(iii.  1-8).  (b)  Therefore  the  faithful  are  admonished  to 
wait  patiently  ;  for  the  end  of  the  great  work  of  judgment 
will  be  the  conversion  of  the  nations  to  God,  the  restora- 


THE    TWELVE  MINOR  PROPHETS         117 

tion  of  the  captives,  and  the  eternal  reign  of  the  King  of 
Israel  in  the  midst  of  her  (iii.  9-20). 

2.  The  description  of  impending  judgment  is  so  cir- 
cumstantial (e.g.  i.  2,  3,  7,  13,  16,  17)  that  many  are 
disposed  to  think  the  immediate  occasion  of  the  pro- 
phecy was  the  great  irruption  of  Scythians  which  took  place 
in  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Josiah  (see  §  49,  1). 

3.  The  "  day  of  the  Lord,"  suggested  so  often  to 
the  prophets  by  prevailing  calamities  or  general  moral 
declension  (see  §  64,  3  ;  §  65,  4  ;  Obad.  15),  is  by  none 
more  vividly  depicted  as  a  dies  irae  than  by  Zephaniah 
(i.  15).  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  nothing  in  prophetic 
literature  more  grand  than  his  prediction  of  the  glorious 
appearing  of  the  Lord  in  Israel  (iii.   14-20). 

HAGGAI 

§  72.  The  three  prophets  that  stand  last  among 
the  twelve  all  belong  to  the  time  after  the  return 
from  the  captivity,  and  they  are  placed  in  chrono- 
logical order.  Haggai  was  contemporary  with 
Zechariah  ;  and  his  book  contains  four  utterances, 
all  given  forth  in  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of 
Darius  Hystaspis,  B.C.  520.  His  style  shows 
little  ornament,  and  his  prophecies  are  plain  and 
directed  to  special  situations  of  his  time. 

1.  The  following  chronological  landmarks  for  the 

period  will  be  found  useful  : — 

B-c-  597-  Jehoiachin  taken  prisoner.      Ezekiel  among 

the  captives. 
,,     586.   Capture  of  Jerusalem. 
,,     536.    Edict  of   Cyrus   (Ezra   i.)  ;     first   return  of 

captives    under    Joshua    and    Zerubbabel 

(Ezra  ii.  2  ;  iii.  2,  8). 
"     535-    Foundation  of  Temple  laid  (Ezra  iii.  S-io). 

Operations  stopped  through  intrigues  of  the 

Samaritans  (Ezra  iv.) 


n8    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

B.C.  520.    Darius  Hystaspis  issues  decree  for  rebuilding 
the  Temple  (Ezra  iv.  24;  vi.)  ;   Haggai 
and  Zechariah  prophesy  (Haggai  i.    1  ; 
Zech.  i.   1). 
,,     515.  Temple  completed  (Ezra  vi.  14,  15). 

2.  The  situation  in  the  time  of  Haggai  may  be 
gathered  from  his  book,  and  from  the  relative  narrative  of 
the  book  of  Ezra  (chaps,  i.-vi.,  which  should  be  read  in 
this  connection).  The  little  community  had  a  laborious 
task  before  them,  and  the  difficulties  were  aggravated  by 
the  opposition  of  the  hostile  neighbours.  In  the  circum- 
stances their  energies  were  spent  in  maintaining  their 
position  and  in  providing  for  their  own  subsistence,  and 
therefore  a  prophet  was  needed  to  arouse  their  zeal  and 
encourage  their  hope. 

3.  Accordingly  Haggai  uttered  his  four  prophecies  : 
(a)  Sixteen  years  had  passed  and  the  Temple  was  not 
built,  and  yet  the  people  had  built  comfortable  dwellings 
for  themselves  (i.  4).  The  result  was  that  their  labours 
in  the  field  had  not  been  blessed  (i.  5-1 1 ).  This  was 
spoken  in  the  sixth  month  (September).  It  stirred  the 
spirit  of  rulers  and  people  so  that  they  commenced  the 
work  on  the  24th  day  of  the  same  month  (i.  12-15). 
(/;)  In  the  following  month,  to  encourage  those  who  had 
seen  the  glory  of  the  former  temple,  he  declares  (ii.  1-9) 
that  the  present  building,  though  externally  inferior, 
would  have  a  greater  glory,  for  the  "desirable  things'' 
(ii.  7,  R.V.)  of  all  nations  would  come  to  it.  (<r)  Still 
in  the  same  year,  about  two  months  after  the  preceding, 
Haggai  pronounces  other  two  prophecies  (ii.  10-19,  an(l 
20-23).  In  the  first,  by  a  ceremonial  question  pro- 
pounded to  him,  he  teaches  that  as  the  touch  of  the 
unclean  pollutes  the  clean,  so  the  worldly  disposition  mars 
everything,  and  brings  a  curse  on  honest  labour.  In  the 
second  the  prophet  casts  a  look  into  the  future,  when  the 
kingdoms  of  the  world  shall  be  shaken,  and  the  Davidic 
king  shall  be  as  a  signet  on  the  Lord's  hand. 


THE   TWELVE  MINOR  PROPHETS         119 


ZECHARIAH 

§  73.  The  prophet  Zechariah  is  described  (i.  1) 
as  the  son  of  Berechiah,  son  of  Iddo  ;  and  Iddo 
was  one  of  the  priests  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  and  Joshua  (Neh.  xii.  4,  16).  We  learn 
from  Ezra  v.  1  and  vi.  14  that  Zechariah  was 
contemporary  with  Haggai,  and  the  book  itself 
dates  some  of  his  prophecies  in  the  second  and 
fourth  years  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  i.e.  B.C.  520 
and  518  (see  §  72).  The  book  consists  of  two 
great  parts  :  the  former  being  chiefly  a  series  of 
visions,  the  dates  of  which  are  given  ;  the  latter  a 
series  of  prophecies  of  a  very  different  character, 
whose  date  and  occasion  it  is  very  difficult  to 
determine. 

1.  The  first  part  (i.-viii.),  after  an  exhortation 
to  repentance,  enforced  by  a  reference  to  the  fathers  who 
had  not  taken  heed  to  the  warnings  of  the  "former 
prophets"  (i.  1-6),  contains  eight  symbolical  visions,  all 
designed  to  encourage  the  leaders  in  the  building  of  the 
Temple,  viz.  :  (a)  Riders  on  horses  of  different  colours, — 
Jehovah's  messengers,  who  report  that  all  the  earth  is 
quiet,  and  that  the  time  of  favour  is  near  (i.  8- 17).  (/>) 
Four  horns  broken  by  four  smiths, — indicating  the  break- 
ing of  Judah's  enemies  (i.  18-21).  (()  A  man  goes  forth 
with  a  measuring-line, — a  symbol  that  the  city  will  be  too 
small  for  its  inhabitants  ;  the  Lord  will  be  her  defence, 
and  many  nations  shall  be  joined  to  her  (ii.)  {d) 
Joshua,  clothed  in  filthy  garments,  with  Satan  at  his 
right  hand,  is  acquitted  and  allowed  access  to  the  Divine 
presence, — an  assurance  of  God's  restored  favour  and 
forgiveness.  Joshua  and  his  fellows,  through  whom 
blessing  is  now  dispensed,  are  but  types  of  a  better 
mediator,    the    branch    (iii.)       (/)     The    golden    candle- 


120    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

stick  {i.e.  the  restored  community)  receiving  oil  [i.e. 
Divine  grace)  through  two  olive-trees  (viz.  the  spiritual 
and  temporal  heads,  Joshua  and  Zerubbabel,  iv.  1-5  and 
1 1- 14).  An  assurance  of  success  is  given  at  the  same 
time  to  Zerubbabel  (iv.  6-10).  {/)  A  flying  roll,  to  show 
that  the  punishment  of  sin  will  fall  upon  the  sinner  (v.  I -4). 
(g)  A  woman  in  an  ephah,  a  symbol  of  the  removal  of  the 
people's  sin  to  Shinar,  the  land  of  their  enemies  (v.  5-1 1). 
(//)  Four  chariots,  with  horses  of  different  colours,  go 
towards  different  quarters  to  execute  God's  judgments. 
One  goes  northward  to  "quiet  His  spirit,"  viz.  towards 
Babylonia  (vi.  1-8).  After  these  visions  comes  a  sym- 
bolical action,  showing  that  the  Branch,  who  is  to  be  the 
true  builder  of  the  Temple,  shall  be  both  king  and  priest 
(vi.  9-15).  And  then,  in  answer  to  a  question  about 
fasts,  the  prophet  declares  that,  as  older  prophets  had 
taught,  God  does  not  delight  in  fasts  (vii. ),  and  the  time 
is  coming  when  fasts  shall  be  turned  into  rejoicing  (viii.) 
Throughout  this  part,  though  the  language  is  highly 
figurative,  the  reference  is  clearly  to  the  situation  of  the 
recently  restored  community. 

2.  The  second  part  (ix.-xiv.)  is  very  different,  and 
seems  to  imply  altogether  different  circumstances.  It 
consists  of  two  sections — (a)  chaps,  ix.-xi.  Here  we  see 
trouble  coming  out  of  the  north  and  sweeping  over 
Damascus,  Tyre,  and  Sidon,  and  the  land  of  the  Philis- 
tines (ix.  1-7).  Jerusalem,  however,  is  defended  ;  her 
king  comes  to  her  meek  and  peaceful  (ix.  8,  9)  ;  Judah 
and  Ephraim  united,  with  captives  restored,  overcome 
the  Greeks  (ix.  10-14)  ;  the  Lord  shall  be  their  defence 
(ix.  15-17),  and  they  shall  seek  no  longer  to  diviners, 
but  to  the  Lord  their  God  (x.  1,  2).  Then  the  same 
theme  seems  to  be  taken  up  again.  Evil  shepherds  are 
punished  (x.  3-5),  Judah  and  Ephraim  are  restored  from 
Egypt  and  Assyria,  these  countries  are  punished  for 
their  pride  and  oppression  (x.  6-12),  and  an  invasion  of 
Lebanon  and  Bashan  takes  place  (xi.  1-3).  The  prophet 
is  then  commanded  to  "feed  the  flock  of  slaughter"  (xi. 
4-8),  but   gives   up   the   task  (xi.    9-14)  ;  and    the   flock 


THE   TWELVE  MINOR  PROPHETS         121 

passes  into  the  hand  of  an  evil  shepherd  (xi.  15-17). 
[And  here,  as  some  think,  the  passage  xiii.  7-9  should 
also  be  taken.]  (/>)  In  chaps,  xii.-xiv.  we  have  :  A 
gathering  of  nations  against  Jerusalem  and  their  overthrow 
(xii.  1-9),  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit  on  Jerusalem,  and 
the  opening  of  a  fountain  for  sin  and  uncleanness  (xii. 
io-xiii.  6).  Chap.  xiii.  7-9  is  by  many  placed  along 
with  the  preceding  section,  because  it  employs  the  same 
figure  of  the  shepherd  smitten  and  the  flock  scattered. 
And  chap,  xiv.,  in  which  all  nations  are  gathered  against 
Jerusalem,  looks  like  a  duplicate  of  chap.  xii. 

3.  The  foregoing  analysis  of  contents  will  indicate  how 
difficult  it  is  to  perceive  the  precise  reference  of  the 
second  part.  The  allusions  to  Ephraim  (ix.  10-15  ;  x. 
7  ;  xi.  14),  to  diviners  (x.  2),  and  to  Assyria  (x.  10) 
have  led  many  to  assign  chaps,  ix.-xi.  to  a  date  preceding 
the  fall  of  Samaria,  while  chaps,  xii.-xiv.  would  also  be 
pre-exilian,  owing  to  the  mention,  e.g.,  of  false  prophets 
(xiii.  2-6),  though  later  than  the  time  of  Josiah,  to  whose 
death  there  is  a  reference  in  xii.  II.  Others  ascribe  the 
whole  of  the  second  part  to  one  writer,  and  some  main- 
tain that  the  whole  is  the  work  of  Zechariah. 

MALACHI 

§74.  Of  the  personality  of  Malachi  nothing  is 
recorded.  His  date  is  evidently  later  than  that  of 
Haggai  and  Zechariah,  for  the  Temple  service  is 
now  in  operation  ;  but  the  religious  condition  of  the 
people  is  anything  but  flourishing.  The  situation 
implied  in  the  book  corresponds  in  remarkable  par- 
ticulars with  that  which  existed  in  the  time  of  Ne- 
hemiah;  and  accordingly  the  prophecy  has  generally 
been  assigned  to  that  period  (somewhere  about  B.C. 
445),  although  the  "governor"  alluded  to  in  chap. 
i.  8  seems  rather  to  be  a  foreigner.  Malachi,  like 
Haggai,  addresses  himself  directly  to  the  circum- 


122    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


stances   of  his   time,  but   looks  forward  also  to  a 
more  glorious  future. 

i.  The  name  Malachi  means  "my  messenger"  or 
"messenger  of  the  Lord"  (see  iii.  i),  and  some  have 
supposed  it  is  a  title  of  some  unnamed  prophet,  or  even 
of  Ezra  himself. 

2.  The  following  are  the  chronological  landmarks 

for  the  period  (compare  §  72,  1)  : — ■ 

B.C.  515.   Temple  completed. 
,,     485-465.    Reign  of  Xerxes.     Esther  queen  (§  88). 
,,     465-425.    Artaxerxes  I.  (Longimanus). 
,,     458.    Second  return  of  captives  under  Ezra  (Ezra 

vii.  1-9).      Malachi  somewhat  later. 
,,     445.    Nehemiah    appointed    governor     (Neh.    ii. 

i-ii). 
,,     444.  Jerusalem  fortified.      Public  reading  of  the 

Law. 
,,     432.   Nehemiah's  second  visit  to  Jerusalem  (Neh. 

xiii.  6,  7). 

3.  The  situation  of  the  time  may  be  gathered  from 
the  book.  The  Temple  service  is  observed  (i.  7,  8,  10, 
12-14),  but  the  priests  are  not  blameless  (i.  6  ;  ii.  1, 
7-9).  At  the  same  time  the  conduct  of  the  people,  in 
the  matters  of  marriage  and  divorce  (ii.  10  ff. )  and  neglect 
of  tithes  and  offerings  (iii.  8),  recalls  the  reproofs  of 
Nehemiah  for  similar  sins  (Neh.  xiii.   10,  23). 

4.  In  these  circumstances  the  prophet  addresses  him- 
self both  to  priests  and  people,  and,  according  to  the 
subject,  we  may  divide  the  book  into  two  parts,  {a) 
God's  special  love  had  been  shown  to  Israel  in  the  past, 
but  they  had  dishonoured  Him  by  presenting  blemished 
offerings ;  and  the  chief  blame  in  this  matter  rested 
on  the  priests  (i.),  who  are  contrasted  with  the  ideal 
Levi  of  old  (ii.  1-9).  {b)  The  people  also  have  vio- 
lated God's  ordinance  and  contracted  mixed  marriages 
(ii.  10-16).  They  have  also  murmured  against  the  Lord 
that   He  made  no  distinction  between  the  evil  and  the 


THE   TWELVE  MINQR  PROPHETS        123 

good,  and  have  been  impatient  for  1 1  is  interposition  (ii. 
17).  But  wrongly  ;  for  His  messenger  is  about  to  prepare 
His  way,  and  the  Lord  Himself  will  suddenly  come  to 
His  Temple  (iii.  1).  Yet  it  is  for  judgment  He  will 
come  ;  to  separate  the  evil  from  the  good  (iii.  2-6,  13-18  ; 
iv.  1-3).  And  the  cause  of  His  delay  has  been  the 
people's  unfaithfulness,  in  which  they  have  followed  their 
fathers  of  old.  When  they  give  God  His  due  and  return 
to  Him,  then  they  will  receive  His  blessing  (iii.  7-12). 
"  All  nations  shall  call  you  happy  :  for  ye  shall  be  a 
delightsome  land,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts." 


i24    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    XXI 

THE    BOOK    OF    PSALMS 

§75.  The  book  of  Psalms  belongs  to  what  may 
be  called  distinctively  the  Hebrew  poetical  litera- 
ture. The  name  by  which  it  is  usually  designated 
in  Hebrew — Book  of  Praises  —  is  not  strictly 
descriptive  of  the  character  of  the  Psalms,  which 
exhibit  great  variety  of  tone  ;  but  it  was  not  inap- 
propriately applied  to  a  collection  that  was  speci- 
ally employed  in  the  service  of  public  worship. 
Our  name  Psalms  is  simply  an  English  form  of  the 
Greek  title  given  by  the  Septuagint.  The  collec- 
tion consists  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  compositions, 
of  very  various  contents,  extending  over  a  very 
wide  period,  and  divided  into  five  books. 

I.  The  characteristic  of  Hebrew  poetry  is  not 
rhyme,  but  what  is  called  parallelism.  The  divisions  of 
verses,  when  placed  side  by  side,  are  seen  to  have  a 
similar  rhythm,  one  member  varying,  carrying  out,  or 
expanding  the  thought  of  the  preceding,  or  presenting  a 
contrast  to  it.  The  R.V.  has  arranged  the  book  of 
Psalms  and  other  poetical  compositions  in  lines  which 
bring  before  the  English  reader  this  peculiarity  of  the 
original,  so  that  there  is  no  need  to  give  examples  here. 
Reference  may  be  made   to    Psalm   xix.,   which   shows 


THE  BOOK  OF  PSALMS  125 

also  how  the  measure  or  rhythm  may  be  varied  (compare 
verses  1-6  with  7-9).  No  sharp  distinction  can  be 
drawn  between  prose  and  poetical  books  in  the  Old 
Testament.  The  three  books,  Psalms,  Job,  and  Proverbs, 
are  classed  together  in  the  Hebrew  Canon,  and  provided 
with  special  accents  for  a  cantillation  of  their  own  (§  17, 
end).  With  these  three  books  we  usually  reckon  also 
Ecclesiastes  and  the  Song  of  Songs  (§  3,  Table  I.)  as 
poetical.  But  the  book  of  Lamentations  is  also  con- 
structed on  the  poetical  model  ;  and  many  passages  in 
the  prophetical  writings  have  strongly  marked  parallelism, 
though  they  are  not  divided  into  lines  in  the  R.V.  (see 
e.g.  Isaiah  lv.,  be,  etc.) 

2.  The  Hebrew  name  fur  a  single  psalm  (for  its 
plural  is  not  found)  is  mizmor,  from  a  word  which  means 
to  play  on  the  lyre,  and  this  is  the  word  found  in  the 
headings  of  the  individual  psalms.  These  compositions 
therefore  are  lyric,  to  be  sung  with  musical  accompani- 
ment. The  Greek  word  psalmos  has  the  same  meaning. 
The  name  "  Praises  "  given  to  the  whole  is  a  different 
word,  Tehillim  ;  but  only  Psalm  cxlv.  is  so  designated  in 
its  title.  The  Greek  word  Psalter  ion,  from  which  we 
have  our  "  Psalter,"  was  properly  the  name  of  a  musical 
instrument,  and  came  to  be  applied  to  the  book  of 
Psalms,  somewhat  as  "  Lyre"  or  "Harp  of  David"  has 
been  used  as  a  title  in  modern  times. 

3.  The  Psalter  was  the  book  of  praise  in  the  second 
temple  ;  and  many  of  the  Psalms,  particularly  towards 
the  close  of  the  collection,  were  evidently  composed  with 
a  view  to  liturgical  use.  But,  just  as  in  the  ease  of  our 
Christian  hymns,  we  are  to  distinguish  the  first  production 
from  the  subsequent  general  adoption.  The  true  poet  gives 
expression  to  feelings  which  are  echoed  by  many  hearts. 

4.  The  total  number  of  the  Psalms  slightly  varies  in 
some  ancient  collections,  but  this  arises  from  the  conjoin- 
ing of  two  contiguous  psalms  or  the  division  of  one  psalm 
into  two.  The  complete  collection  is  authenticated  by 
all  the  versions.  The  division  into  five  books — which 
is  marked  in  the  R.V. — is  also  ancient,  and  is  believed 


126    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

to  have  been  made  in  imitation  of  the  fivefold  division 
of  the  Pentateuch.  And  it  is  remarkable  that  we  find 
in  the  Psalter  the  same  variation  in  the  use  of  the  Divine 
names  as  appears  in  the  Pentateuch  (§  32,  3),  some  of 
the  books  being  predominantly  Tehovistic  and  others 
distinctively  Elohistic.  No  satisfactory  explanation  of 
this  fact  has  yet  been  given. 

§  76.  The  subjects  of  the  Psalms  are  so  various, 
and  even  the  contents  of  individual  psalms  so 
diversified,  that  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  satis- 
factory classification  of  them.  One  prevailing 
characteristic  of  them  all  is  their  reflective  or 
subjective  character.  The  aspect  they  present  of 
religion  is  not  so  much  that  of  a  law  given  or 
a  revelation  made,  as  that  of  a  truth  apprehended 
and  a  guidance  experienced.  The  Law,  it  has 
been  said,  is  God's  fivefold  voice  to  man,  and 
the  Psalter  is  man's  fivefold  response  to  God. 
Accordingly,  as  religion  was  made  known  to  Israel 
in  connection  with  a  wonderful  and  chequered 
national  history,  the  Psalms  are  animated  through- 
out by  the  two  sentiments  of  piety  and  patriotism, 
while  they  rise  or  fall  with  the  alternating  hope 
and  despondency  which  were  produced  by  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  nation's  experience. 

I.  Lyric  poetry  always  expresses  the  varying  moods 
and  feelings  of  the  poet  ;  and  so  the  same  psalm  may 
give  utterance  to  the  opposite  feelings  of  faith  and  doubt, 
hope  and  despair,  passing  rapidly  from  prayer  to  praise, 
and  mingling  the  sighs  of  confession  with  songs  of  deliver- 
ance. Vet  the  dominant  note  of  some  psalms  is  so 
distinct,  and  the  chief  motive  of  the  composition  often 
so  clearly  indicated,  that  it  is  possible  to  form  groups  of 
kindred  psalms,  exhibiting  the  leading  themes  of  the 
sacred  poets.      Thus  there  are  :  — 


THE  BOOK  OF  PSALMS  127 

(a.)  Psalms  celebrating  God's  glory  in  Creation: 
viii. ,  xix.  (first  half),  xxix.,  civ.,  cxxxix. 

(/>.)  Historical  psalms  :  lxxvii.,  lxxviii.,  lxxxi.,  xcv., 
cv. ,  cvi.,  cxiv.,  cxxxv.,  cxxxvi. 

((-.)  Psalms  relating  to  the  King:  ii.,  xviii.,  xx.,  xxi., 
xlv.,  Ixxii. ,  lxxxix. ,  ci. ,  ex.,  exxxii. 

(.-/.)  Psalms  relating  to  Jerusalem :  xlviii.,  lxxvi., 
lxxxvii.,  exxii.,  exxv.,  exxxvii.,  cxliv. 

(e. )  Psalms  in  praise  of  the  Lata:  i.,  xv. ,  xix.  (second 
half),  cxix. 

(/.)  Psalms  in  the  prophetic  tone:  xiv.,  1.,  lii.,  lviii., 
lxxxii.,  xciv. 

(g. )  Speculative  psalms,  in  the  manner  of  the  "wis- 
dom" literature  (§  79)  :  xxxvii.,  xlix.5  Ixxiii.  Also  xvi., 
xvii. ,  xxii. ,  lxix. 

Other  modes  of  classification  have  been  attempted, 
as,  e.g.,  according  to  the  prevailing  tone  and  dis- 
position of  mind  of  the  psalmist.  Thus  some  psalms 
are  predominantly  joyful,  as  Psalms  viii.,  xviii.,  xix., 
xxiii.,  xxix.,  xlvi.,  etc.  Others  exhibit  a  frame  of  mind 
which  is  sad  and  plaintive,  as  Psalms  vi.,  xxxii.,  xxxviii., 
Ii. ,  lxix.,  lxxiv.,  lxxix.,  Ixxx.,  lxxxiii.,  cii.,  etc.  Others 
again  proceed  from  a  more  composed  and  reflective  state 
of  mind,  as  Psalms  i.,  xv.,  xlix.,  1.,  Ixxiii.,  cxix.,  cxxxix., 
etc. 

§77-  The  great  majority  of  the  Psalms  are 
provided  with  headings  or  titles,  which  most 
probably  were  added  some  time  after  the  com- 
position of  the  Psalms.  The  significance  of  these 
is  far  from  clear,  but  they  seem  to  indicate  the 
source  from  which  the  several  psalms  were  derived, 
the  character  of  the  compositions,  the  melodies  to 
which  they  were  adapted,  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  were  to  be  rendered  with  music.  A 
comparison  of  these  headings,  taken  along  with  a 
consideration  of  the  contents  of  individual  psalms, 
and  of  the  fact  that  the  whole   Psalter  consists  of 


128   OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

five  books,  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
collection  was  gradually  formed,  and  that  it 
contains  compositions  belonging  to  very  different 
dates  in  the  history. 

.  I.  There  are  a  hundred  psalms  in  all  which  bear  some 
person's  name  in  the  title ;  sixteen  have  headings 
without  names  ;  and  thirty-four  (called  by  the  Jews  "  or- 
phan psalms  ")  have  no  heading  whatever.  The  persons 
named  in  the  titles  are  Moses  (in  Ps.  xc),  David  (in 
seventy-three  psalms),  Solomon  (Psalms  lxxii.  and  cxxvii.), 
the  sons  of  Korah  (eleven  psalms),  Asaph  (twelve 
psalms),  Heman  (Ps.  Ixxxviii. ,  which  has  also  the  name 
"  of  the  sons  of  Korah  "),  and  Ethan  (lxxxix.) 

2.  The  meanings  of  certain  technical  terms  found  in 
the  titles  can  only  be  conjectured  with  varying  degrees 
of  probability.  The  R.V.  gives  a  rendering  of  some  of 
them  in  the  margin  :  such  as  Nehiloth,  wind  instruments 
(Ps.  v.);  Sheminith,  the  eighth  (Ps.  xii.)  So  some  are 
headed  "on  stringed  instruments"  (A.V.  Neginoth, 
Ps.  iv.  etc.)  All  these,  as  well  as  Gittith  (Ps.  viii. 
etc.),  Alamoth  (xlvi.),  Selah,  are  probably  musical  terms. 
Other  expressions — Maschil  (xlv.  etc.),  Michtam  (xvi. 
etc.),  Shiggaion  (vii.) — seem  to  denote  the  character  of  the 
poem  ;  while  others  still,  such  as  Shoshannim  (xlv.  etc.), 
Muth-labben  (ix.),  Al-tashheth  (lvii.  etc.),  Aijeleth  hash- 
Shahar  (xxii.),  andjonath  elem  rehokim  (lvi. ),  are  under- 
stood to  be  indications  of  well-known  melodies  to  which 
the  psalms  were  to  be  sung.  Moreover,  thirteen  of  the 
psalms  which  bear  the  name  of  "David"  have  brief 
notices  indicating  the  occasions  in  his  life  to  which  they 
refer.  It  is  to  be  remarked  in  general  in  regard  to  the 
headings,  that,  as  they  have  various  references,  so  they 
may  have  been  prefixed  at  different  periods  ;  but  they  do 
not  seem  to  be  integral  parts  of  the  original  compositions. 
The  LXX.  translators,  even  in  their  time,  appear  to  have 
been  as  ignorant  of  the  meaning  of  some  of  the  terms  as 
we  are  ;  and  they  modify  the  headings  in  many  cases. 

3.  The  titles,  however,  taken  along  with  other  indica- 


THE  BOOK  OF  PSALMS  129 

tions,  throw  light  upon  the  question  of  the  composition 
of  the  Psalter.  It  will  be  observed  that  psalms  with  the 
same  or  similar  titles  are  mostly  grouped  together.  Thus 
Psalms  lxxiii.  to  lxxxiii.  are  all  entitled  "  of  Asaph,"  and 
there  is  only  one  other  psalm  bearing  that  name  (Ps.  1.) 
So,  the  psalms  "of  the  sons  of  Korah  "  stand  all  very 
nearly  in  succession  (xlii.,  xliv. -xlix.,  lxxxiv.,  lxxxv. , 
lxxxvii.,  lxxxviii.)  ;  and  the  most  of  the  psalms  "of 
David"  are  found  in  Books  I.  and  II.,  the  first  book 
alone  containing  thirty -seven.  So  the  songs  "of 
Degrees"  (or  "Ascents,"  R.V.)  are  all  found  together 
(Psalms  cxx.-cxxxiv.)  ;  and  the  Psalter  concludes  with 
a  group  of  "  Hallelujah  "  psalms  (cxlvi.-cl.  See  R.V. 
marg.)  Now,  at  the  conclusion  of  Ps.  Ixxii.,  after  the 
doxology  (vv.  18,  19),  we  find  these  words: — "The 
prayers  of  David  the  son  of  Jesse  are  ended,"  a  notice 
which  must  have  been  added  (as  a  sort  oijinis)  when  a 
collection  of  psalms  "  of  David  "  ended  at  that  place, 
although  other  psalms  with  his  name  are  found  in  sub- 
sequent parts  of  the  present  collection.  The  conclusion 
to  which  these  facts  point  is  that  the  Psalter  attained  its 
present  form  and  dimensions  by  additions  to  a  smaller 
collection  or  by  the  combination  of  several  collections. 
As  it  now  stands,  it  is  a  book  made  up  of  five  books, 
each  closing  with  a  doxology,  the  whole  of  the  last  psalm 
being  a  doxology  in  itself.  But  beneath  and  anterior  to 
this  division  we  can  recognise  smaller  groups  of  related 
psalms,  and  the  titles  may  indicate  the  names  by  which 
the  smaller  collections  were  known. 

4.  It  will  follow  from  what  has  just  been  said  that  the 
individual  psalms  are  of  various  dates  and  authorship. 
David  is  by  universal  tradition  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  sacred  psalmody,  and  the  earliest  collection  would,  no 
doubt,  contain  his  compositions.  Whether  all  the 
psalms  inscribed  with  his  name  were  regarded  by  the 
collectors  as  his  composition  is  very  doubtful  :  the  way 
in  which  other  names  are  prefixed,  such  as  "so/is  of 
Korah,"  would  suggest  that  the  names  stand  not  so 
much  for  authorship,  as  for  titles  of  collections.      And, 


130   OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

just  as  the  book  of  Proverbs  is  spoken  of  as  the  Proverbs 
of  Solomon,  although  it  tells  us  distinctly  that  it  contains 
proverbs  by  others  (Prov.  xxiv.  23  ;  xxx.  I  ;  xxxi.  1  ;  see 
§  80),  so  the  whole  Psalm-book  came  to  be  spoken  of 
as  the  "Psalms  of  David.''  It  is  perfectly  clear  that 
there  are  psalms  as  late  in  date  as  the  exile  (e.g.  Ps. 
cxxxvii.),  and  even  later  {e.g.  Ps.  cxxvi.)  ;  and  it  is  main- 
tained that  some  of  them  must  be  placed  even  in  the  time 
of  the  Maccabees.  The  collection  has  the  appearance  of 
having  received  additions,  both  of  small  groups  and  of 
individual  psalms,  at  different  times  ;  but  we  must  con- 
clude that  it  had  been  for  some  time  completed  before  it 
was  incorporated  into  the  Canon  (§  15). 

§  78.  The  book  of  Psalms  is  unique  as  a  portion 
of  Old  Testament  Scripture.  It  is  not,  like  any 
of  the  prophetic  books,  the  production  of  one 
particular  period  of  history,  but  was  the  growth  of 
centuries.  In  the  psalms  the  singers  of  Israel  have 
expressed  the  deepest  feelings  that  struggled  for 
utterance  in  the  nation's  heart,  and  through  them 
the  nation's  history  appears  invested  with  a  special 
character  of  sacredncss.  Though  intensely  personal 
and  national,  they  are  in  accord  with  universal  truth 
and  experience  ;  for,  of  all  the  references  in  the 
New  Testament  to  the  Old,  the  half  are  to  this 
book  ;  and  the  Church  of  Christ  and  individual 
believers  in  all  ages  have  found  no  words  better 
fitted  to  express  their  feelings  in  all  vicissitudes 
than  the  words  of  the  Psalms. 

1.  The  existence  of  the  Psalms  as  a  distinct  class  of 
literature,  side  by  side  with  the  Law  and  the  Prophets,  is 
instructive  as  to  the  history  and  character  of  the  religion 
of  Israel.  The  Law  shows  what  the  religion  ought  to 
be ;  the  prophets  tell  us  very  plainly  what  the  religion  of 
their  times  was  not ;  the  Psalms  indicate  what  to  some 
the  religion  was,  and  what   many  more  wished  that  it 


THE  BOOK  OF  PSALMS  131 

should  be.  They  show  that  there  was  such  a  thing  as  a 
religion  of  the  heart  ;  and  if  many  of  the  psalms  were,  as 
is  maintained,  of  late  date,  and  all  of  them  were 
employed  in  the  service  of  praise  of  the  Second  Temple, 
it  is  all  the  more  remarkable  that  they  were  so  highly 
prized  at  a  time  when  the  legal  and  formal  tendency  was 
setting  in.  But  the  tone  in  which  the  worship  of  the 
Temple  and  the  ordinances  of  the  Law  are  alluded  to  in 
the  Psalms  shows  that  to  the  devout  under  the  old  dis- 
pensation these  things  had  their  spiritual  application. 
On  such  Scriptures  as  the  Psalms,  no  doubt,  were 
nurtured  those  devout  souls  who,  during  the  centuries 
between  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments,  looked  for  the 
consolation  of  Israel. 

2.  As  used  in  the  worship  of  the  Temple  the  Psalms 
would  be  expressive  of  the  collective  feelings  of  the 
community,  and  many  of  them  were  evidently  composed 
with  that  intent.  But  the  language  of  contrition  and 
supplication  for  pardon  must  have  been  learned  by 
personal  experience  before  it  could  be  applied  to  the 
nation  ;  and  it  is  their  fitness  to  give  utterance  to  per- 
sonal experience  that  has  made  the  Psalms  the  devotional 
book  of  the  world.  It  is  the  task  of  literary  criticism 
to  discover,  if  possible,  the  occasions  of  the  psalms  and 
the  external  situations  of  the  writers  ;  but  here  the  infer- 
ences of  devout  experience  are  not  to  be  overlooked, — 
that  that  which  goes  straight  to  the  individual  heart  must 
have  come  from  the  individual  heart,  and  that  what  has 
in  all  ages  been  the  answer  of  the  soul  to  God  must  have 
been  inspired  and  drawn  forth  by  the  Spirit  of  God. 


132    OLD  TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XXII 

THE    BOOK    OF    PROVERBS 

§79.  The  name  of  this  book  is  not  to  be  taken 
to  indicate  that  it  consists  of  a  loose  collection  of 
wise  or  witty  sayings.  The  book  belongs  to  what 
has  been  called  the  wisdom  literature  of  the 
Hebrews,  which  is  the  nearest  approach  to  specu- 
lation or  philosophy  that  we  find  in  the  Old 
Testament.  It  was  the  result  of  reflection  turned 
towards  the  practical  side  of  life,  and  occupied 
mainly  with  the  two  great  problems  of  the  moral 
government  of  the  world,  and  the  duty  of  man 
placed  in  such  a  world  as  experience  proves  this 
to  be. 

1.  In  literary  form  the  book  of  Proverbs  may  be 
classed  with  the  Psalms  as  poetical  (§  75,  1)  ;  for  the 
tendency  is  to  express  the  conclusions  of  reflection  in  a 
measured,  sententious  phraseology.  And  so  in  the  Revised 
Version  this  book  is  arranged  in  parallelisms.  The 
"  proverb  "  {maskal)  is  properly  a  similitude,  in  which  a 
particular  fact  or  statement  is  given  as  a  representation 
of  a  general  truth  ;  and,  besides  the  form  of  the  simple 
proverb,  it  may  take  that  of  the  fable  (Jud.  ix.  7  ff . ;  2  Kings 
xiv.  9),  the  riddle  (Jud.  xiv.  12  ff.  ;  1  Kings  x.  1,  2),  the 
satire  (Isa.  xiv.  4  ;  Hab.  ii.  6),  the  parable  (2  Sam.  xii. 
I  if.;  Isa.  v.  I,  2),  or  the  allegory  (Ezek.  xvii.  2  ff.  ;  xxiv. 


THE  BOOK  OF  PROVERBS  133 

3  ff.)  In  subject,  however,  the  book  allies  itself  with 
Job  and  Ecclesiastes,  which  are  of  a  more  sustained 
speculative  character.  A  few  of  the  Psalms  also  run 
into  the  same  strain.  See  Psalm  xlix.  and  note  verse  4  ; 
also  Psalm  lxxviii.  and  verse  2. 

2.  The  "wise"  were  always  famous  in  the  East  (see 
2  Sam.  xiv.  2  ;  1  Kings  iv.  30  ;  Jer.  xlix.  7  ;  Obad.  8), 
and  proverbial  literature  must  be  very  ancient,  as  is  shown 
by  the  various  forms  of  similitudes  just  mentioned.  The 
absence,  from  this  special  class  of  books,  of  such  allusions 
to  Israel's  national  position  and  distinctive  religious 
observances  as  are  common  in  the  prophetical  and  other 
writings,  should  not  be  regarded  as  indicating  either 
ignorance  of  these  or  want  of  interest  in  them.  ]\Tor  can 
it  be  taken  as  a  proof  of  the  late  date  of  these  com- 
positions, for  in  later  times  the  tendency  was  towards  a 
national  "particularism,"  more  than  to  such  a  "  uni- 
versalism  "  as  the  wisdom  literature  exhibits.  It  must  be 
taken  as  an  indication  of  the  many-sided  aspect  in  which 
truth  is  presented  in  the  Old  Testament, — a  proof  that 
religion  in  its  practical  bearing  upon  life  and  conduct  was 
from  an  early  time  a  matter  of  study  to  the  thoughtful 
part  of  the  nation. 

§  80.  The  book  itself  tells  us,  by  various  head- 
ings, that  it  comes  from  different  sources,  two  of 
the  sections  being  ascribed  to  Solomon.  The 
editing  of  one  part  of  the  collection  is  ascribed  to 
"the  men  of  Hezekiah"  (xxv.  1)  ;  but  whether 
the  various  sections  are  arranged  in  the  order  of 
their  dates,  or  what  was  the  time  of  their  com- 
bination, it  is  very  hard  to  say. 

1.  The  following  is  a  brief  analysis  of  the  contents 
of  the  book  : — After  a  descriptive  title  showing  the  pur- 
pose of  the  collection  (i.  1-6),  viz.  "to  know  wisdom 
and  instruction  .  .  .  the  words  of  the  wise  and  their 
riddles"  (v.  6,  R.V.  marg.)t  there  is  (a)  the  first  section 
of  proverbs,  which  may  be  entitled  "the  praise  of  wis- 


134    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

dom  "  (i.  7-ix.  18),  in  the  form  of  addresses  by  a  father 
to  his  son  (i.  8  ;  ii.  I,  etc.)  Then  comes  (b)  a  large 
section,  entitled  "The  Proverbs  of  Solomon"  (x.  1- 
xxii.  1 6).  These  are  proverbs  in  the  strict  sense,  or 
maxims,  arranged  in  no  precise  order,  bearing  on  the 
nature,  value,  and  fruits  of  good  and  bad  conduct  in 
various  relations  of  life,  (c)  At  xxii.  17  a  new  section 
seems  to  begin,  containing  "  words  of  the  wise  "  ;  it  goes 
on  to  xxiv.  22,  and  has  a  supplementary  collection  of 
"sayings  of  the  wise"  (xxiv.  23-34).  Next  comes  (<•/) 
another  section  of  "Proverbs  of  Solomon "  which  the 
men  of  Hezekiah  copied  out  (xxv.-xxix. )  ;  followed  by  (e) 
"  the  words  of  Agur  "  (xxx. ),  which  are  for  the  most  part 
enigmatical  sayings,  in  which  mimbers  play  a  significant 
part;  (/)  "the  words  of  king  Lemuel"  (xxxi.  1-9), 
homely  maxims  on  practical  life  addressed  to  him  by  his 
mother;  and  (^j  the  praise  of  a  virtuous  woman  (xxxi. 
10-31),  an  alphabetical  piece,  in  which  each  of  the  twenty- 
two  verses  of  which  it  consists  begins  with  a  successive 
letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet  (comp.  §  86,  3). 

2.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  those  "  Proverbs  of 
Solomon,"  which  stand  later  in  the  book  (xxv.-xxix.),  have 
all  the  characteristics  of  the  popular  proverb,  and  may 
be  earlier  in  date  than  the  other  section,  similarly  named, 
which  stands  earlier  in  the  collection  (x.-xxii.) 


THE  BOOK  OF  JOB  135 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE    BOOK    OF    JOB 

§81.  This  book  bears  a  name  that  has  become  a 
synonym  for  patience  under  suffering ;  but  it  is 
quite  evident  that  it  has  a  deeper  purpose  than  to 
narrate  the  personal  experiences  of  Job.  The  book 
belongs  to  the  class  of  the  wisdom  literature 
(§§  79,  87)  ;  and  in  artistic  plan,  poetical  expres- 
sion, and  sustained  argument,  it  takes  the  fore- 
most place  among  compositions  of  this  kind. 

1.  Job  is  mentioned  (for  the  first  time  elsewhere)  in 
Ezek.  xiv.  14,  16,  20  ;  and  though  it  may  be  impossible 
to  determine  his  date  or  native  place,  there  is  no  reason 
to  doubt  his  existence  and  remarkable  experiences.  At 
the  same  time,  it  would  be  doing  injustice  to  the  genius 
of  the  author  of  the  book  to  suppose  that  he  is  nothing 
but  a  verbatim  reporter  of  long  speeches.  He  has  con- 
structed his  book  artistically,  so  as  to  make  Job's  ex- 
perience a  similitude  (§  79,  1)  of  general  truths — a 
medium  for  giving  expression  to  sustained  reflection  on  a 
most  perplexing  problem. 

2.  The  contents  of  this  book  are  systematically  laid 
out  as  follows  : — 

I.  Prologue,  in  prose,  telling  how  Job  was  afflicted, 
and  how  his  three  friends  came  to  condole  with  him 
(i.,ii.) 


136    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

II.  Colloquies  of  Job  and  his  friends,  in  poetry 
(iii.-xxxi.),  viz.  :  (1)  First  cycle  (iii.-xiv. )  :  Job  opens, 
and  answers  each  in  turn.  (2)  Second  cycle  (xv.-xxi.)  : 
Eliphaz  opens,  and  Job  answers  each  in  turn.  (3)  Third 
cycle  (xxii.-xxvi. )  :  Eliphaz  opens;  Zophar  is  silent. 
(4)  Job's  closing  speech  (xxvii. -xxxi.)  ;  Job  the  sole 
speaker. 

III.  Speeches  of  Elihu  (xxxii.-xxxvii.),  in  poetry, 
except  the  opening. 

IV.  God  answers  Job  out  of  the  whirlwind  (xxxviii.  1- 
xlii.  6).  Job  is  now  ashamed  and  penitent  (xl.  3-5  ;  xiii. 
1-6). 

V.  Epilogue,  in  prose,  telling  how  the  Lord  blessed 
the  latter  end  of  Job  more  than  the  beginning  (xlii.  7- 17). 

3.  The  literary  character  of  this  book  is  unsurpassed. 
The  parallelism  is  well  balanced,  and  the  strophe  system 
well  marked.  It  exhibits  poetic  freshness  and  delicacy 
in  the  treatment  of  details,  and  as  a  complete  poem,  it  is 
the  nearest  approach  to  the  epic  in  sacred  literature. 

§  82.  As  to  the  date  of  the  book  the  most 
diverse  opinions  have  been  held  ;  for  it  has  been 
assigned  in  turn  to  almost  every  period  of  Israelite 
history,  from  the  Mosaic,  or  even  pre-Mosaic,  to 
the  Exilian  or  post -Exilian.  So,  as  to  its  com- 
position, it  has  been  disputed  whether  it  is  a 
unity,  or  how  the  different  parts  have  been  brought 
together.  Moreover,  although  the  great  theme 
of  the  book  is  evident,  viz.  the  sufferings  of  the 
righteous  under  the  rule  of  a  righteous  God,  there 
have  been  different  opinions  as  to  the  precise 
manner  in  which  the  writer  meant  to  state  the 
problem,  and  the  solution  of  it  which  he  designed 
to  convey. 

1.  As  to  the  date  of  Job  himself,  the  manner  in 
which  his  life  and  circumstances  are  depicted  (i.,  ii.) 
would    indicate    that    in    the    national    recollection,    he 


THE  BOOK  OF  JOB  137 

belonged  to  the  patriarchal  age,  or  at  least  that  he 
lived  under  conditions  such  as  are  associated  with  the 
patriarchs,  in  some  district  eastward  from  Palestine, 
contiguous  to  the  desert.  The  date  of  the  book,  how- 
ever, is  another  matter  ;  and  perhaps  no  one  now  accepts 
the  Jewish  tradition  which  assigned  it  to  the  Mosaic 
age.  The  cultivation  of  the  wisdom  literature  is 
specially  associated  with  Solomon,  and  the  advanced 
literary  stage  which  the  book  exhibits  requires  it  at 
least  to  be  dated  not  before  his  time.  Many,  however, 
regard  it  as  still  later,  some  placing  it  in  the  period  of 
the  great  prophets,  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  and  others  in 
the  Babylonian  exile  or  after  it.  There  is  a  striking 
resemblance  between  Jer.  xx.  14  ff.  and  Job  iii.  ;  and 
in  many  respects  the  points  discussed  in  Job  have  their 
parallels  in  Isaiah  xl.  -lxvi.  The  strongest  reasons  for 
the  late  date  are  the  highly  developed  literary  standard 
that  has  been  attained,  the  advanced  stage  of  reflection 
that  has  been  reached,  and  the  dark  background  of 
general  suffering  and  moral  disorder  which  is  implied. 

2.  The  unity  and  integrity  of  the  book  have  been 
much  discussed.  There  seems  no  sufficient  reason  for 
regarding  the  prologue  and  epilogue  as  later  additions. 
They  form  an  appropriate  literary  setting  for  the  dis- 
courses ;  and  the  interest  of  the  book  is  heightened  by 
the  recollection  that  both  Job  and  his  friends  carry  on 
their  discussions  in  ignorance  of  what  has  taken  place  to 
bring  about  his  sufferings.  There  are,  however,  some 
reasons  for  regarding  the  speeches  of  Elihu  as  later  than 
the  original  book.  Job  takes  no  notice  of  them,  and  they 
interrupt  the  connection  between  his  challenge  and  the 
reply  of  God.  They  add  nothing  substantially  to  the 
discussion,  and  may  have  come  from  a  pious  reader 
who  wished  to  counteract  the  bold  statements  of  Job 
with  sentiments  of  greater  reverence  for  God. 

3.  The  problem  discussed  in  the  book  is  not  the 
speculative  question  of  the  origin  of  evil  ;  it  is  the 
practical  question,  why  a  righteous  God  inflicts  suffering 
upon  a  good  man.     Job's  friends  urge  that  suffering  is 


138    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

the  result  of  sin,  and  advise  him  to  humble  himself  and 
search  out  his  shortcomings.  To  this  he  replies  that, 
though  no  man  is  pure  from  sin,  he  is  not  conscious  of 
such  guilt  as  his  extraordinary  sufferings  seem  to  imply. 
Moreover,  he  urges,  it  is  matter  of  universal  experience 
that  the  wicked  prosper  while  the  good  suffer  ;  and  it  is 
this  inequality  under  the  rule  of  a  righteous  God  that 
perplexes  him.  He  fights  against  the  horrible  thought 
that  God  does  not  govern  the  world  according  to  justice. 
His  own  case  is  but  a  similitude  of  a  general  principle  ; 
and  amid  many  hard  things  that  he  utters  against  God, 
he  is  persuaded  that  if  he  could  pierce  through  the 
mystery  that  surrounds  Him,  his  cause  would  be  justified 
and  all  made  plain.  So  his  consuming  desire  is  to  see  his 
Maker  face  to  face.  And  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  when 
God  addresses  Job  out  of  the  whirlwind,  He  does  not 
reason  with  him  or  resolve  his  doubts.  The  substance 
of  His  reply  is  "Shall  he  that  cavilleth  contend 
with  the  Almighty?"  (xl.  2  R.V.  ;  compare  Rom.  ix. 
20).  And  yet  the  revelation  of  Divine  greatness  made 
to  Job,  though  it  did  not  explain  the  mystery,  was  a 
working  solution  of  the  patriarch's  doubts  (xlii.  5,  6). 
A  closer  knowledge  of  God  humbled  him  and  gave  him 
patience.  It  is  the  same  practical  solution  of  the  same 
problem  that  is  given  by  the  psalmist  "Nevertheless  I 
am  continually  with  thee "  (Ps.  lxxiii.  23);  and  Job 
was  but  carrying  out  the  same  line  of  thought  when,  in 
the  certain  prospect  of  his  immediate  dissolution,  he  con- 
fidently expected  that  he  would  afterwards  see  his  Maker 
face  to  face,  and  Divine  righteousness  would  be  vindicated 
(xix.  25-27).  Thus  held  fast  between  the  bitter  experiences 
of  life  and  the  belief  in  a  righteous  government  of  the 
world,  the  saints  of  the  Old  Testament  were  enabled  to 
bear  patiently  their  present  ills,  while  they  received 
glimpses  of  that  full  solution  of  the  world's  mystery 
which  has  been  given  in  the  resurrection  of  Christ. 


THE  FIVE  ROLLS  139 


CHAPTER    XXIV 

THE    FIVE    ROLLS 

§83.  By  this  title  are  designated  those  five 
small  books,  of  very  different  contents  and  dates, 
which  had  the  distinction  of  being  read  after  the 
Law  in  the  public  service  of  the  synagogue  on  five 
specified  festivals  or  solemn  days. 
They  are  : — ■ 

i.  The  Song  of  Songs,  or  Canticles,  which  was  read 
on  the  eighth  day  of  the  Feast  of  the  Passover,  from  an 
allegorical  interpretation  of  the  book  with  a  reference 
to  the  history  of  the  Exodus. 

ii.  Ruth,  which  was  read  on  the  second  day  of  the 
Feast  of  Weeks,  or  Pentecost,  the  feast  of  harvest. 

iii.  Lamentations,  read  on  the  ninth  day  of  the  month 
Ah,  the  traditional  date  of  the  destruction  of  both 
temples. 

iv.  Ecclesiastes,  or  The  Preacher,  read  on  the  third 
day  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  the  most  joyful  of  all 
the  feasts,  because  the  book  recommends  the  thankful 
enjoyment  of  the  pleasures  of  life. 

v.    Esther,  read  at  the  Festival  of  Purim. 

THE    SONG    OF    SONGS 

§  84.  It  is  generally  believed  that  the  title  of 
this  book  is  a  superlative  expression  (like  "heaven 


i4o     OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

of  heavens  ")  to  indicate  the  best  of  songs  ;  though 
some  explain  it  in  the  sense  of  a  song  made  up  of 
different  songs,  or  canticles^  all  having  one  subject 
— love.  There  is  no  doubt  that  different  speakers 
are  introduced,  so  as  to  give  a  dramatic  appear- 
ance to  the  book  ;  but  they  appear  so  abruptly 
that  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  say  who  or  how 
many  they  are  ;  and  hence  the  determination  of 
the  purpose  and  plan  of  the  whole  book  remains 
one  of  the  most  perplexing  problems  of  Old 
Testament  study. 

1.  In  the  original,  the  distinction  of  male  and  female 
speakers  is  indicated  by  the  genders  of  the  words. 
We  can  thus,  so  to  speak,  discriminate  the  voices, 
though  we  cannot  clearly  discern  the  features  of  the 
characters.  In  the  R.V.  a  space  between  the  verses 
denotes  a  change  of  speaker. 

2.  Of  the  characters  of  the  piece,  one  can  be  traced 
throughout,  viz.  the  "Shulammite,"  so  named  in  vi.  13 
R.V.  and  generally  understood  to  be  a  maiden  of 
Shunem  (compare  2  Kings  iv.  12).  The  "daughters  of 
Jerusalem,"  who  somewhat  resemble  the  chorus  in  a  Greek 
play,  though  subsidiary,  are  easily  recognisable.  The 
main  question  is  whether  the  Shulammite  has  two  suitors 
or  only  one  ;  for  according  as  this  question  is  answered, 
the  division  of  dialogue  must  be  made  and  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  whole  carried  out.  (a)  On  the  view  that  there 
is  only  one  male  speaker,  it  is  the  king  who  falls  in  love 
with  a  rustic  maiden,  and  at  length  raises  her  to  the 
position  of  his  bride  in  the  palace.  The  most  of  the 
dialogue  on  this  view  consists  of  the  exchange  of  endear- 
ments between  the  lovers.  {/>)  The  other  opinion,  which 
many  now  hold,  is  that  the  Shulammite  has  been  be- 
trothed to  a  shepherd  lover  ;  but  she  has  been  noticed 
by  Solomon  and  his  retinue  on  some  royal  journey 
(vi.  10-13),  brought  to  Jerusalem,  and  there,  surrounded 
by  the  women  of  the  palace,  is  plied  with  entreaties  by 


THE  FIVE  ROLLS  141 

the  king  in  the  hope  of  winning  her  affections.  On  this 
view  it  is  explained  that  those  speeches  of  a  rustic  suitor, 
which  do  not  befit  the  character  of  Solomon  (see  ii. 
8-14),  are  the  words  of  her  absent  lover,  recalled  by  the 
maiden  herself  to  confirm  her  in  her  devotion.  To- 
wards the  close  the  parted  lovers  are  united  (viii.  5-7), 
and  the  conclusion  of  the  whole  seems  to  be  that  true 
love  is  unquenchable,  and  cannot  be  bought  by  wealth 
and  position. 

3.  The  conclusion  to  be  drawn  as  to  the  purpose 
of  the  book  depends  upon  the  opinion  we  form  of  the 
characters  introduced.  On  the  view  that  has  been  last 
mentioned  {b  above),  the  book  would  have  an  ethical 
aim — to  exhibit  the  triumph  of  pure,  spontaneous  love, 
over  all  worldly  and  unworthy  enticements  ;  and,  the 
scene  being  laid  in  the  time  of  Solomon  (though  the 
book  could  not  thus  have  come  from  his  hand),  the  pro- 
test would  be  all  the  more  striking  against  the  loose  view 
of  marriage  which  is  associated  with  his  reign.  The 
lesson  would  be  one  on  the  sacredness  of  human  love, 
which  our  Lord  Himself  emphasised  (Matt.  xix.  4-8,  etc.) 
On  the  other  view  mentioned  (a  above),  while  some 
would  regard  the  book  as  nothing  more  than  a  collection 
of  love-songs,  or  a  composite  poem  made  up  of  songs 
such  as  are  found  in  other  Eastern  literature,  others  think 
that  the  marriage  of  Solomon  to  Pharaoh's  daughter,  or 
to  a  Galilean  maiden  whom  he  raised  to  the  throne,  is 
made  typical  of  a  higher  and  spiritual  love.  On  this 
ground  they  suppose  the  book  was  taken  into  the  Canon, 
and  has  a  counterpart  in  Psalm  xlv.  This  may  be  called 
a  modification  of  the  earliest  known  mode  of  interpreting 
the  book,  which  was  allegorical.  This  view,  found 
among  the  Jews  as  early  as  the  Fourth  Book  of  Esdras 
(end  of  the  first  century  A.  d.),  and  among  Christian 
writers  first  in  Origen  (died  a.d.  254),  regarded  the  book 
as  teaching  symbolically  the  love  of  God  to  the  nation  of 
Israel,  or  to  the  Church,  or  to  the  individual  soul  ;  and 
the  literature  connected  with  the  Song  on  this  line  of 
interpretation  has  been  most  extensive  down  to  modern 


142    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

times.  It  may  be  safely  said  that  the  book  would  not 
have  been  placed  in  the  Canon  had  it  been  regarded 
merely  as  a  collection  of  love-songs. 

4.  As  a  literary  work  the  Song  of  Songs  is  re- 
markable, not  only  for  the  form  in  which  it  is  cast,  but 
for  the  highly  poetical  stamp  which  it  bears  throughout, 
and  the  glowing  delight  in  Nature  which  it  breathes.  As 
to  its  composition,  the  indications  of  the  language  are 
thought  to  point  either  to  a  north -Palestinian  or  to  a 
post -Exilian  origin.  The  reference  to  Tiizah  (vi.  4), 
which  was  the  capital  of  the  northern  kingdom  before 
Samaria  ( I  Kings  xvi.  23,  24),  is  regarded  by  some  as 
requiring  a  date  anterior  to  Omri  {i.e.  about  B.C.  920)  ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  peculiarities  in  the 
language  which  are  usually  regarded  as  characteristic  of 
the  post-Exilian  period. 

RUTH 

§  85.  The  book  of  Ruth,  which  is  a  graphic 
delineation  of  incidents  occurring  about  a  hundred 
years  before  the  time  of  David,  has  its  historical 
place  where  it  stands  in  our  English  Bible,  after 
the  book  of  Judges  (§  6  ;  §  37,  2),  and  is  so  placed 
in  the  LXX.  Version.  But  being  an  independent 
production,  and  having  with  the  other  "  rolls " 
been  set  apart  for  special  synagogue  use,  it  is 
classed  with  them  in  the  Canon.  One  chief  pur- 
pose of  the  book  seems  to  be  the  tracing  of  the 
genealogy  of  David  to  the  Moabite  Ruth,  whose 
name  it  bears. 

1.  The  contents  are  familiar.  Elimelech  of  Beth- 
lehem goes,  in  the  days  of  the  Judges,  with  his  wife 
Naomi  and  their  two  sons,  to  sojourn  in  Moab,  where 
the  two  sons  marry  wives  of  the  country.  After  the 
death  of  her  husband  and  both  her  sons,  Naomi  returns 


THE  FIVE  ROLLS  143 

to  her  native  Bethlehem,  and  one  of  her  daughters-in-law, 
Ruth,  with  clinging  affection  accompanies  her.  Ruth, 
while  gleaning  in  the  fields  of  Boaz,  a  kinsman  of  Elim- 
elech,  finds  favour  in  his  eyes,  and  Naomi  contrives  to 
suggest  to  him  that  he  should  marry  the  Moabite  widow. 
This,  after  the  refusal  of  a  nearer  kinsman,  he  does,  and 
thus  Ruth  becomes  the  ancestress  of  David. 

2.  Composition. — Although  it  is  generally  agreed 
that  the  book  is  an  independent  composition,  there  are 
differences  of  opinion  as  to  its  date.  Many  modern 
writers  pronounce  it  to  be  as  late  as  the  exile  or  even 
later,  partly  owing  to  peculiarities  of  the  language,  partly 
from  the  manner  in  which  it  refers  to  old  customs  (iv. 
1 -12).  On  the  other  hand,  the  language  as  a  whole 
is  quite  different  from  that  of  admittedly  late  books,  and 
shows  as  much  purity  as  e.g.  the  books  of  Samuel.  The 
advocates  of  an  early  date  rely  much  on  the  argument 
that  the  marriage  of  an  Israelite  with  a  Moabite  would 
have  seemed  offensive  to  a  writer  after  the  exile  (see 
Ezra  ix.,  x.  ;  Neh.  xiii.  23-29). 

LAMENTATIONS 

§  86.  This  book  is  designated  in  the  Jewish 
Canon  simply  by  its  first  word  Hoiu  /  which 
is  the  word  with  which  an  elegy  usually  begins. 
Our  name  Lamentations  is  translated  from  the 
title  of  the  Greek  Version.  The  book  consists  of 
five  elegies  or  lamentations,  each  occupying  a 
chapter,  and  all  referring  to  one  subject,  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem,  which  it  dwells  upon  and 
presents  from  different  sides. 

I.  The  "lament"  or  elegy  was  a  well-known  form 
of  composition  (see  Amos  v.  1,  2  ;  Isa.  xiv.  4-21  ;  2 
Sam.  i.  17-27,  iii.  33,  34  ;  Jer.  ix.  10,  17-21  ;  Ezek. 
xxvi.  17,  iS,  and  observe  the  frequency  and  impressive- 
ness  of  the  How  .') 


144    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

2.  The  different  aspects  of  the  great  common 
theme  are  in  a  manner  indicated  in  the  opening  verse 
of  each  chapter,  thus:  (i.  i)  "How  doth  the  city 
sit  solitary!" — the  desolation  of  Jerusalem  ;  (ii.  i)  "  How 
hath  the  Lord  covered  the  daughter  of  Zion  with  a  cloud 
in  his  anger  ! " — the  catise  of  the  calamity,  God's  anger  ; 
(iii.  i)  "I  am  the  man  that  hath  seen  affliction  by  the 
rod  of  his  wrath " — the  nation  personified  takes  the 
affliction  to  heart;  (iv.  i)  "How  is  the  gold  become 
dim  !  " — contrast  between  the  present  and  the  past  ; 
(v.  i)  "  Remember,  O  Lord,  what  is  come  upon  us"  :  — 
the  nation's  appeal  to  the  nation's  God. 

3.  The  literary  form  of  these  five  elegies  has  been 
artistically  constructed.  It  will  be  observed  that  each 
of  the  chapters,  except  iii.,  consists  of  twenty-two  verses, 
and  that  chap.  iii.  contains  three  times  twenty-two,  or 
sixty-six  verses.  Now  there  are  twenty-two  letters  in 
the  Hebrew  alphabet  ;  and  all  the  chapters,  except  the 
last,  are  alphabetical — i.e.  the  verses  are  made  to  begin 
in  succession  with  the  successive  letters,  one  verse  being 
given  to  each  letter  in  chaps,  i.  ii.  and  iv. ,  and  three 
successive  verses  to  one  letter  in  chap.  iii.  Chap,  v., 
though  not  alphabetical,  is  made  to  consist  of  twenty-two 
verses.  The  length  of  the  line  and  of  the  verse  (what 
in  an  English  poem  we  should  call  the  metre)  varies 
also  in  the  different  chapters,  as  may  be  perceived  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  R.V. 

4.  Authorship.  In  the  LXX.  Version  there  is 
prefixed  to  Lamentations  the  following  statement  : — 
"  And  it  came  to  pass,  after  Israel  was  led  into  captivity, 
ami  Jerusalem  laid  waste,  that  Jeremiah  sat  weeping, 
and  lamented  with  this  lamentation  over  Jerusalem, 
and  said  ..."  The  ascription  of  the  book  to  the 
prophet  is  thus  ancient,  and  many  in  modern  times 
assign  it  in  whole  or  in  part  to  him.  It  is  admitted 
generally  that  the  elegies  must  have  been  written  by 
one  or  more  persons  in  or  near  the  times  in  which  he 
lived.  The  situation  is  indicated,  e.g. ,  in  chap.  ii.  9  ;  iv. 
20 — the  city  in  ruins  and  the  king  in  captivity  ;  and  the 


THE  FIVE  ROLLS  145 

whole  burden  of  the  book  is  the  outpouring  of  grief 
under  a  crushing  present  calamity.  The  "  ninth  of 
Ab"  is  a  dark  day  in  the  Jewish  calendar  (§  83,  3); 
and  no  book  in  the  Old  Testament  Canon  exhibits  more 
pathetically  than  this  the  patriotic  attachment  of  the  race 
to  their  city  and  land,  and  the  intense  emotion  which  was 
excited  by  the  ruin  that  came  upon  the  people  through 
their  unfaithfulness. 


ECCLESIASTES 

§87.  This  name,  which  our  version  has  simply 
adopted  in  its  Greek  form  from  the  LXX.,  is 
meant  to  be  a  translation  of  the  Hebrew  title 
Kohileth,  the  meaning  of  which,  however,  is  not 
certain.  The  book  belongs  to  the  class  of  re- 
flective or  speculative  literature  (§§  21,  79);  but 
its  date  cannot  be  precisely  determined.  And 
though  it  is  deeply  interesting  throughout,  and 
plain  and  pithy  in  its  style,  the  aim  and  pur- 
pose of  its  composition  have  given  rise  to  much 
discussion. 

1.  The  name  Koheleth  is  etymologically  related  to 
the  word  which  is  translated  in  our  version  congregation  ; 
but  it  is  active  and  feminine  in  form.  Hence  it  has 
been  taken  as  an  epithet  of  Wisdom,  calling  together 
and  addressing  an  assembly  (see  Prov.  i.  20;  viii.  1). 
Jerome  renders  it  by  the  Latin  coticionator,  from  which 
our  version  has  "The  Preacher1'*  (R.V.  marg.  great 
orator).  A  name  of  a  feminine  form  might  be  borne  by 
a  man  (as  Sophereth  in  Neh.  vii.  57);  but  the  manner 
in  which  Koheleth  is  identified  with  Solomon  (i.  1, 
12),  and  the  tone  of  address  generally,  lead  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  name  is  meant  to  be  descriptive. 
Some  have  explained  it  as  meaning  "assembly,"  and 
have  regarded  the  book  as  a  collection  <>f  opinions  or 


146    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

addresses  by  different  wise  men.  But  it  is  evident  that 
the  book  is  one  whole,  treating  of  one  theme  and  prose- 
cuting one  great  line  of  thought  throughout — the  question 
of  the  moral  government  of  the  world  (compare  the  book 
of  Job,  §§  81,  82). 

2.  Authorship.  The  traditional  view  of  the  syna- 
gogue that  Solomon  wrote  the  book  of  Ecclesiastes  may 
be  said  to  be  abandoned  in  modern  times.  The  terms  in 
which  Solomon  is  mentioned  in  i.  12  ("was  king")1 
indicate  that  the  writer  put  his  meditations  in  the  mouth 
of  one  who  was  renowned  for  wisdom  and  wide 
experience  ;  but  there  is  not  a  word  of  regret  for  the 
follies  which  stained  the  life  of  Solomon,  nor  could  he 
have  spoken  as  this  writer  does  of  the  oppression  of  rulers 
and  the  tears  of  the  oppressed  (iii.  16  ;  iv.  I  ;  v.  8)  if 
he  were  the  ruler  himself.  But  the  language  of  the 
original  is  decisive.  The  book  must  be  late  if  there  is 
any  history  in  the  Hebrew  language  ;  and  the  only 
question  is,  How  late  ?  It  must,  at  all  events,  be  earlier 
than  Ecclesiasticus,  which  was  written  B.C.  200  (see  §  9), 
for  that  book  presupposes  the  existence  of  this.  Materials 
for  arriving  at  some  conclusion  on  the  point  are  :  the 
references  contained  in  the  book  to  the  condition  of 
society  in  which  the  writer  lived,  and  the  mode  and  tone 
of  thought  which  he  exhibits.  These  indications  lead 
many  in  modern  times  to  assign  the  book  to  the  Persian 
period  (B.C.  538-331  ;  see  §  51,  1),  and  probably 
towards  its  close  :  though  others  would  bring  it  down 
even  later. 

3.  Analysis  of  Contents.  The  absence  of  a  clear 
literary  plan  makes  it  difficult  to  arrange  the  contents  of 
the  book  systematically.  Facts  are  looked  at  from 
different  sides  and  in  various  relations  ;  the  same  sub- 
ject recurs  at  different  points  ;  and  the  conclusions  drawn 
are  not  always  formally  consistent  with  one  another. 
Hence  some  have  regarded  the  book  as  the  work  of  a 
sceptic,  or  the  expression  of  varying  moods  and  fancies. 

1  Note  also  the  words:  "above  all  that  were  before  me  in 
Jerusalem,"  i.  16  K.V.     Compare  ii.  7,  9. 


THE  FIVE  ROLLS  i47 

Yet  a  closer  examination  shows  that  this  is  not  the  case  : 
the  conclusions  the  writer  comes  to  at  various  stages  are 
virtually  the  same,  and  when  he  returns  to  his  subject,  it 
is  to  consider  it  on  a  different  plane,  or  from  another  side. 
He  begins  by  slating  his  theme:  All  is  vanity,  there  is 
nothing  new  under  the  sun  (i.  i-ii),  i.e.  human  life  has 
no  substantial  result.  He  then  gives  proof  from  practical 
experience.  He  had  tried,  and  found  that  vain  is  the 
quest  for  knowledge  (i.  12-18),  vain  the  pursuit  of  plea- 
sure (ii.  I -10),  vain  the  profit  of  labour  and  activity  (ii.  1 1- 
23).  The  conclusion  is  that  there  is  nothing  better  for 
a  man  than  to  eat  and  drink  and  enjoy  the  fruit  of  his 
labour  (ii.  24)  ;  for  all  depends  upon  God,  and  man  can 
only  submit  (ii.  24 -hi.  22).  He  then  takes  a  wider 
survey  of  human  life  and  society  (iv.-vi.),  interspersing 
various  maxims  of  conduct  to  be  followed  in  the  pre- 
vailing "vanity";  and  the  question,  "Who  knoweth 
what  is  good  for  man  in  his  life?  "  suggests  the  praise  of 
true  wisdom,  and  calls  forth  maxims  on  the  way  to  attain 
it  (vii.,  viii. ),  leading  on  to  a  consideration  of  political 
wisdom  (ix. ,  x.)  The  dark  background  is  always  the 
vanity  or  unprofitableness  of  life  ;  yet  the  Preacher's 
position  is  not  a  pessimism  nor  a  creed  of  despair.  Life 
is  good,  though  neither  the  best  nor  the  last  good  ; 
benevolence  is  to  be  practised  (xi.  1-8)  ;  and  the  young 
especially  are  exhorted  to  live  joyfully,  yet  with  a  regard 
to  a  coming  judgment  (xi.  9-xii.  8). 

4.  From  the  foregoing  analysis  we  may  infer  the  aim 
and  purpose  of  the  book.  It  exhibits  the  reflections 
of  one  whose  lot  had  been  cast  in  evil  times.  Though 
he  does  not  enjoy  the  buoyant  hope  of  the  old  prophets, 
he  is  not  without  faith  in  God.  It  is  the  struggle 
between  this  faith  and  the  hard  facts  of  experience  that 
gives  the  mournful  turn  to  his  thoughts  (compare  §  82,  3). 
Desponding  as  his  words  read  to  us,  it  no  doubt  cost  him 
a  severe  effort  in  his  day  to  be  so  confident  as  he  is  in 
the  face  of  the  inequalities  and  disorders  he  saw  in  the 
world.  His  knowledge  of  a  future  life  is  hut  limited 
(iii.  19,  20  ;   vi.  6  ;   ix.  5,  10  ;  comp.  §§  82,  S3),  as  such 


148     OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

knowledge  was  in  Old  Testament  times  generally  ;  so 
that  if  we  are  disposed  to  regard  his  conclusions  as  in- 
adequate, it  is  because  we  have  been  taught  to  look  at 
life  and  its  problems  in  a  purer  and  brighter  light, 
and  privileged  to  know  that  our  labour  is  not  vain  in  the 
Lord  (i  Cor.  xv.  58). 

ESTHER 

§88.  This  book  takes  its  name  from  the  Jewish 
maiden  who  is  the  principal  character  in  the  episode 
of  history  which  it  relates.  It  belongs  to  the 
Persian  period  (§  51,  1),  for  Ahasuerus  has  been 
identified  with  Xerxes,  who  succeeded  Darius  in 
the  year  485  B.C.,  and  reigned  twenty  years  (see 
the  dates  in  §  74,  2).  The  book  is  in  several 
respects  unique  as  a  literary  composition  of  the 
Old  Testament ;  and  though  its  right  to  stand  in 
the  Canon  has  been  disputed  both  by  Jews  and 
Christians,  it  acquired  in  later  Judaism  a  place  of 
even  undue  regard,  and  is  often  denoted  as  the 
roll,  by  way  of  pre-eminence  above  the  other  four. 

1.  The  name  of  Xerxes  appears  in  the  Persian 
inscriptions  as  Kshyarsha,  and  all  that  we  know  of  his 
character  and  reign  agrees  with  the  representations  given 
in  this  book.  He  was  capricious,  passionate,  and  subject 
to  the  influence  of  court  favourites  ;  and  it  is  to  be  noted 
that,  between  the  third  year  of  his  reign,  when  he  made 
the  feast  to  his  princes  and  servants  (i.  3),  and  the 
seventh  year,  when  Esther  was  made  queen  (ii.  16),  took 
place  the  Greek  war  which  was  so  disastrous  to  the 
Persians  (Battles  of  Thermopylae  and  Salamis  B.C.  480). 

2.  The  contents  of  the  book  are  familiar.  The 
king  having,  in  a  tit  of  temper,  repudiated  his  queen 
Vashti,  Esther  is  chosen  from  among  the  fairest  maidens 
of  the  Empire  to  take  her   place.      She  was  the  adopted 


THE  FIVE  ROLLS  149 

daughter  of  Mordecai,  a  Jew,  but  she  did  not  disclose 
her  nationality  in  the  palace.  Haman,  the  king's 
favourite  minister,  offended  at  the  want  of  respect  shown 
him  by  Mordecai,  casts  lots  for  a  favourable  day  to  present 
his  petition,  and  obtains  a  decree  for  the  extermination 
of  the  Jews  and  the  alienation  of  their  property. 
Mordecai  makes  known  this  plot  to  Esther,  and  entreats 
her  to  intervene  in  her  nation's  behalf.  This  she  resolves 
to  do  ;  and,  to  carry  out  her  plan,  invites  the  king  and 
Haman  to  a  banquet.  Haman,  elated,  prepares  a 
gallows  on  which  to  hang  Mordecai  ;  while  the  king, 
during  a  sleepless  night,  has  the  records  of  the  kingdom 
read  to  him,  and  discovers  that  Mordecai  had  on  one 
occasion  saved  his  life,  and  that  this  service  to  the  state 
had  remained  unrewarded.  "What  shall  be  done  unto 
the  man  whom  the  king  delighteth  to  honour  ?  "  he  asks 
Haman  when  they  meet  next  day,  and  Haman,  thinking 
only  of  himself,  suggests  a  royal  proclamation  and  a 
public  procession.  Hainan's  plot  is  revealed  by  Esther, 
and  he  is  made  to  suffer  the  punishment  he  had  devised 
for  his  enemy.  A  royal  letter  is  then  despatched  to  the 
provinces  permitting  the  Jews  to  defend  themselves  ;  they 
inflict  a  bloody  vengeance  on  their  enemies,  and  cele- 
brate their  deliverance  in  a  general  rejoicing.  And  thus 
originated  the  Feast  of  Purim  or  lots. 

3.  The  purpose  of  the  book  was  no  doubt  to  explain 
how  the  feast  of  Purim  came  to  be  observed  ;  and  the 
mere  existence  of  such  a  feast  is  a  guarantee  for  the 
historical  character  of  the  story.  Already  in  the  second 
book  of  Maccabees  the  feast  is  referred  to  as  "the  day 
of  Mordecai  "  ;  and  though  attempts  have  been  made 
to  explain  its  origin  otherwise,  and  doubts  have  been 
expressed  regarding  some  details  of  the  story,  the  sub- 
stantial accuracy  of  the  writer  has  not  been  disproved. 

4.  The  reception  of  the  book  into  the  Canon  was 
not  without  opposition  even  among  the  Jews  ;  and  in 
some  of  the  early  Christian  lists  of  canonical  books  it  is 
wanting.  It  has  often  been  remarked  that  the  name  of 
God  is  not  once  mentioned  in  the  book  ;  and  it  exhibits 


ISO     OLD    TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

plainly  the  spirit  of  exclusiveness  and  national  pride  that 
came  to  be  a  characteristic  of  later  Judaism.  Yet  it  has 
valuable  lessons  to  teach  as  to  the  dealings  of  Providence, 
and  is  instructive  as  an  episode  in  the  wonderful  history 
of  a  wonderful  people. 


THE  BOOK  OF  DANIEL  151 


CHAPTER   XXV 

THE  BOOK  OF  DANIEL 

§  89.  This  book  takes  its  name  from  the  Hebrew 
prophet  who  was  carried  captive  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  rose  to  eminence  at  the  court  of  the 
Chaldean  and  Persian  kings.  In  language,  style, 
and  contents  it  is  very  unlike  the  prophetical 
books  ;  and  has  not  been  placed  among  them, 
but  with  the  Hagiographa  in  the  third  division  of 
the  Canon. 

1.  The  only  references  to  Daniel  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment outside  this  book  are  two  brief  allusions  in  Ezekiel, 
in  one  of  which  (xiv.  14)  he  is  associated  with  Noah  and 
Job  as  an  example  of  piety,  and  in  the  other  (xxviii.  3) 
he  is  extolled  for  wisdom.  The  chief  facts  of  his 
personal  history  given  in  this  book  are  :  that  he  was 
carried  away  from  Jerusalem  in  the  third  year  of  Jehoia- 
kim,  H. c  605  (i.  1)  ;  that,  along  with  three  other  noble 
Hebrew  youths  he  was  instructed  in  the  language  and 
learning  of  the  Chaldeans,  and  employed  in  the  king's 
service  (i.),  attaining  with  his  companions  to  great 
dignity  (ii.  48,49)  ;  and  that  he  remained  in  high  office 
till  the  third  year  of  Cyrus  the  Persian  (B.C.  535).  At 
every  step  of  his  career  he  is  distinguished  by  the  two 
qualities  of  piety  and  wisdom  with  which  Ezekiel  associ- 
ates his  name. 


152    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

2.  There  are  two  dialects  of  language  in  the  book 
of  Daniel  ;  the  portion  extending  from  chap.  ii.  4  to 
chap.  vii.  28  being  in  Aramaic  (see  ii.  4,  R. V.  marg.), 
or  what  is  often  (though  improperly)  called  Chaldee.1 
This  was  not  the  language  of  the  Chaldean  Empire,  but 
a  dialect  akin  to  Hebrew,  which  by  degrees  came  to 
be  the  spoken  tongue  of  the  Jews  in  post-Exilian  times 
(see  also  §  91,  2).  The  rest  of  the  book  is  in  Hebrew  ; 
but  it  exhibits  several  Persian,  and  even  a  few  Greek 
words  ;  and  it  has,  besides,  features  that  are  characteristic 
of  a  late  stage  of  the  language. 

3.  In  style  also  the  book  of  Daniel  is  peculiar.  The 
writer  does  not  use  the  common  prophetic  expression 
"  Thus  saith  the  Lord  "  (and  the  disjunction  of  the  book 
from  the  prophetical  writings  used  to  be  explained  by 
saying  that  Daniel  was  not  a  prophet  by  office  but  by 
gift)  ;  nor  does  he,  as  the  prophets  usually  do,  address 
the  people  of  his  time.  His  predictions  are  highly 
symbolical,  and  in  their  representation  of  the  future, 
apocalyptical  ;  herein  resembling  parts  of  Zechariah,  and 
furnishing  a  model  for  the  New  Testament  Apocalypse. 

4.  According  to  the  subject-matter  the  contents  of 
the  book  fall  into  two  great  divisions  :  of  which  the 
former  narrates  incidents  in  which  Daniel  had  a  promin- 
ent part  (i. -vi.),  and  the  latter  contains  four  visions  which 
he  saw  (vii.-xii.)  In  the  first  division  we  have  (a) 
Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  of  the  colossal  figure  of  com- 
posite elements,  with  Daniel's  interpretation  (ii.)  ;  (/>) 
Daniel's  three  companions  cast  into  the  furnace  for 
refusing  to  worship  the  golden  image  which  Nebuchad- 
nezzar had  set  up  (iii.)  ;  (c)  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  of 
the  great  tree,  with  Daniel's  interpretation  (iv.) ;  (d) 
Belshazzar's  feast,  and  Daniel's  interpretation  of  the 
writing  on  the  wall  (v. )  ;  (e)  Daniel  cast  into  the  den  of 
lions  and  delivered  (vi.)  In  the  second  division  we 
have  an  account  of  four  visions  seen  by  Daniel,  viz.  (a) 
the  vision  of  four  beasts  coming  up  from  the  sea,  with 

1  Syrian  or    Syriack  (A.V.)  is  more  appropriate   than   Chaldee. 
The  Hebrew  name  of  Syria  is  Aram. 


THE  BOOK  OF  DANIEL  153 

the  heavenly  assize,  and  dominion  given  to  one  like  unto 
a  son  of  man  (vii. )  ;  {b)  the  vision  of  4:he  ram  with 
two  horns,  overcome  by  a  he -goat  with  "a  notable 
horn  "  between  its  eyes  ;  which  in  turn  is  replaced  by 
four  horns,  and  out  of  one  of  them  comes  forth  "  a  little 
horn "  which  persecutes  the  saints,  abolishes  sacrifice, 
and  profanes  the  sanctuary  (viii.)  ;  (c)  the  angel  Gabriel 
explains  to  Daniel  the  seventy  years  of  Jeremiah  as 
seventy  weeks  of  years  (ix. ) ;  (</)  an  angel  who  has  had 
to  contend  with  the  "prince"  of  Persia  appears  to 
Daniel  and  announces  that,  aided  by  Michael  the 
"  prince,"  he  will  again  contend  on  behalf  of  Israel, 
first  with  the  "prince"  of  Persia,  and  then  with  the 
"  prince  "  of  Greece  (x.-xii.) 

§  90.  There  are  difficulties,  arising  both  from 
the  form  and  from  the  contents  of  the  book,  in 
the  way  of  determining  the  date  of  its  composition, 
and  understanding  the  reference  of  some  of  its  parts. 
There  is,  however,  no  difficulty  in  perceiving  the 
main  drift  of  the  predictive  portions,  and  in 
recognising  the  practical  value  of  the  book  as  a 
part  of  the  Old  Testament  Scripture.  . 

I.  The  features  of  the  language  that  have  been  men- 
tioned are  against  assigning  the  composition  of  the  book 
as  it  now  stands  to  the  period  in  which  Daniel  himself 
is  placed.  The  language  is  very  different  from  that  of 
his  contemporary  Ezekiel,  and  "in  general  character 
resembles  the  Hebrew  of  the  Chronicler,  who  wrote 
shortly  before  the  beginning  of  the  Greek  period  M1  (i.e. 
B. c.  332,  see  §51,1).  On  other  grounds  than  those  of 
language,  many,  in  modern  times,  date  the  composition 
of  the  book  about  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  and 
the  beginning  of  the  Maccabean  period  (after  B.C.  170). 
It  may  be  observed  that  the  assigning  of  the  book  to  so 
late  a  date  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  the  book  is 
not  historically  accurate,  for  we  do  not  know  what 
1  Delitzsch. 


154    OLD    TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

older  materials  such  a  late  writer  might  employ.  Diffi- 
culties have  been  raised  as  to  the  identification  of 
Belshazzar  and  Darius  the  Mede ;  but  it  is  more 
probable  that  our  own  knowledge  of  those  remote  times 
is  defective  than  that  the  writer  should  have  drawn 
upon  his  fancy  in  such  matters. 

2.  The  prophetic  visions  in  the  second  part  of  the 
book,  and  the  dream  of  Nebuchadnezzar  in  chap,  ii., 
have  the  same  general  import — the  rise  and  fall  of 
successive  world-powers  and  the  final  triumph  of  the 
kingdom  of  God.  In  chaps,  ii.  and  vii.  there  is  a 
succession  of  four  great  powers  ;  but  there  are  differences 
of  opinion  as  to  the  empires  indicated,  particularly  the 
fourth.  The  view  that  used  to  be  held  is  that  the 
empires  are  (i)  the  Chaldean,  (2)  the  Medo- Persian 
(Cyrus),  (3)  the  Macedonian  (Alexander  and  his 
successors),  and  (4)  the  Roman  (divided  afterwards  into 
east  and  west).  But  many  modern  writers  separate  the 
Median  from  the  Persian,  and  make  the  four  to  be,  the 
Chaldean,  the  Median,  the  Persian,  and  the  Macedonian 
(which  broke  up  into  the  Seleucidae  and  the  Ptolemies). 
If  the  Roman  Empire  is  intended,  as  many  still  suppose, 
the  book,  even  on  the  latest  date  assigned  to  it,  would  be 
predictive.  If  the  fourth  empire  is  the  Macedonian, 
and  the  writer  lived  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  though 
not  strictly  predictive,  the  book  would  have  a  prophetic 
significance,  as  exhibiting,  in  one  comprehensive  scheme, 
the  rise  and  fall  of  successive  empires  in  the  unfolding 
of  Providence.  And  in  any  case,  the  clear  indication  of 
the  triumph  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  the  power  of  the 
stone  cut  out  of  the  mountain  without  hands  (ii.  45),  and 
the  dominion  given  to  one  like  unto  a  son  of  man  (vii.  13 
R.V.),  are  indubitable  proofs  of  the  strong  Messianic 
hope  which  sustained  the  writer  in  what  was  evidently 
a  time  of  deep  distress  ;  and  the  conception  of  God  as 
the  source  of  all  wisdom  and  power  (ii.  20-23),  ruling  all 
things  in  heaven  and  earth  for  the  execution  of  His 
purpose,  would  give  confidence  and  patience  to  those  to 
whom  the  book  was  addressed. 


THE  BOOKS  OF  EZRA  AND  N EH  EMI  AH    155 


CHAPTER    XXVI 

THE    BOOKS    OF    EZRA    AND    NEHEMIAH 

§  91.  These  two  books  are  in  the  Hebrew- 
Canon  counted  as  one,  and  were  originally  one 
book,  although  made  up  of  various  elements. 
The  names  that  have  come  to  be  attached  to  them 
conveniently  indicate  the  period  of  history  to 
which  they  relate,  and  the  activity  of  the  two  men 
who  took  the  most  prominent  part  in  the  consoli- 
dation of  post-Exilian  Judaism. 

1.  The  two  books  were  in  the  earliest  times  spoken 
of  collectively  as  "  Ezra"  ;  and  Origen,  who  is  the  first 
to  speak  of  them  as  two,  which  he  names  First  and 
Second  Ezra,  states  particularly  that  in  the  Hebrew 
original  they  were  but  one.  They  stand  in  the  Hebrew 
bible  after  Daniel  and  before  Chronicles  ;  but  it  will  be 
observed  that  Ezra  begins  with  the  closing  words  of 
Chronicles,  so  that  the  series,  as  arranged  in  our  English 
Version,  forms  a  connected  history. 

2.  Those  parts  in  the  two  books  which  are  expressed 
in  the  first  person  must  be  ascribed  to  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  respectively  (see  Ezra  vii.  27  -  viii.  34  ;  ix.  ; 
Neh.  i.  1  -vii.  73;  xii.  27-43;  xl11-  4"30-  Other  parts, 
however,  which  speak  of  the  two  leaders  in  the  third 
person,  seem  to  be  from  another  hand  (see  Ezra  i.  1-8  ; 
iii.-iv.  6;  vi.  19-22;  vii.  1-11;  x.  I  - 19  ;  Neh.  xii. 
44-xiii.  3).  Besides  these  narrative  portions,  various 
lists,    derived    from    some    official    sources,    have    been 


156    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

incorporated  in  both  books  (see  Ezra  i.  9-1 1;  ii. 
(compare  Neh.  vii.  6-73)  ;  x.  20-44  '■>  Neh.  iii.  ;  x. 
1-27  ;  xi.  3-36  ;  xii.  1-26).  We  even  find  in  the  book 
of  Ezra  two  pieces  in  Aramaic  (§  89,  2)  apparently 
extracted  from  some  chronicle  in  that  dialect  (Ezra  iv. 
7-vi.  18;  and  vii.  12-26).  In  endeavouring  to  determine 
the  date  of  a  composite  writing  of  this  kind,  we  look  for 
the  latest  ascertainable  fact  that  is  mentioned.  Now 
we  find  that  in  one  place  (Neh.  xii.  26)  the  times  of 
Nehemiah  and  Ezra  are  spoken  of  as  past,  in  another 
(Neh.  xii.  10,  11)  the  list  of  high  priests  is  brought 
down  to  Jaddua,  who,  according  to  Josephus,  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Alexander  the  Great,  while  in  still  another 
passage  (Neh.  xii.  22)  Darius  the  Persian  is  named, 
who  is  most  probably  Darius  Codomannus,  the  last 
Persian  king  (B.C.  336-331).  The  latest  writer,  there- 
fore, whose  hand  can  be  detected  in  these  books,  must 
have  lived  in  the  Greek  period  (§51,  1);  and  many 
believe  he  was  the  author  of  the  books  of  Chronicles, 
which  are  later  in  date  than  Ezra-Nehemiah. 

3.  The  whole  period  of  history  covered  by  the  books 
is  a  little  over  a  century,  viz.  from  the  first  year  of 
Cyrus,  B.C.  536  (Ezra  i.  1)  to  the  thirty-second  year  of 
Artaxerxes  I.,  B.C.  432  (Neh.  xiii.  6).  But  they  do  not 
give  a  connected  or  complete  history  of  the  period,  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  following  scheme  : — 

(a)  Before  Ezra's  arrival.  Ezra  i.-vi.,  B.C.  536- 
515.  In  this  period  Haggai  and  Zechariah 
prophesied  (see  §§  72,  73). 

(/>)  Eifty-seven  years  without  record,  viz.  B.C.  515- 
458. 

(c)  Arrival  of  Ezra.      Ezra  vii. -x.,  B.C.  458. 

{(/)  Thirteen    years    without    mention    of    Ezra,    viz. 

B.C.  458-445- 
(f)  Joint    activity    of    Ezra    and     Nehemiah.       Neh. 
i. -xiii. ,    B.C.    445-432.       Here   probably    is    to 
be  placed  the  prophecy  of  Malachi  (see  §  74). 

4.  The  leading  events  in  this  period  are  the  fol- 
lowing : — 


THE  BOOKS  OF  EZRA  AND  NEHEMIAH    157 

(«)  In  the  twenty-one  years  preceding  the  appearance 
of  Ezra  at  Jerusalem,  the  colony  under  Zerubbabel  (also 
named  Sheshbazzar)  and  Joshua  had  set  up  an  altar  for 
burnt  offering  and  celebrated  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles, 
and  then  proceeded  to  lay  the  foundations  of  the  temple. 
In  the  work  of  building  they  were  hindered  by  the 
Samaritans,  and  it  was  not  till  the  sixth  year  of  Darius 
that  the  temple  was  finished. 

(/;)  In  order  to  fill  up  the  blank  of  the  narrative,  and 
to  understand  the  condition  of  things  on  Ezra's  arrival, 
it  is  necessary  to  note  the  succession  of  Persian  kings  in 
the  period  referred  to.  Between  Cyrus  and  Darius 
there  intervened  a  space  of  about  eight  years,  covered 
by  the  reign  of  Cambyses,  son  of  Cyrus,  and  the  brief 
usurpation  of  the  Pseudo-Smerdis.  Some  have  identified 
these  with  the  Ahasuerus  and  Artaxerxes  mentioned  in 
Ezra  iv.  6,  7  ;  but  it  is  generally  agreed  that  the  latter 
names  stand  for  Xerxes  I.  and  Artaxerxes  I.,  who  suc- 
ceeded Darius.  The  passage  iv.  6-23  would  thus  give 
a  summary  statement  of  repeated  or  continued  efforts 
on  the  part  of  the  Samaritans  to  hinder  the  work,  and 
prepare  us  for  the  situation  in  the  time  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah. 

(c)  Ezra  with  his  colony  arrived  in  the  seventh  year 
of  Artaxerxes,  i.e.  B.C.  458,  the  journey  having  occupied 
four  months  (Ezra  viii.  1-32  ;  compare  vii.  8-10).  On 
his  arrival  he  found  things  even  worse  than  he  had 
expected.  The  people  had  contracted  mixed  marriages 
and  conformed  to  heathen  customs  ;  and  even  the 
priests  and  Levites  were  involved  in  the  trespass. 
Ezra  sat  down  astonied  till  the  evening  sacrifice 
(Ezra  ix.  1-4)  ;  and,  moved  by  his  confession  of  the 
national  backsliding  (ix.  5-15),  the  leaders  bound 
themselves  by  oath  to  put  away  their  heathen  wives  and 
aid  him  in  the  cleansing  of  the  community  (x. ) 

(d)  All  that  is  recorded  of  Ezra's  activity  up  to  this 
point  could  not  have  occupied  long  time,  and  we  hear 
no  more  of  him  for  thirteen  years,  when  Nehemiah 
appears  upon  Ihe  scene.      Whether  he  was  at  Jerusalem 


158    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

all   the  time,  and  if  so,  how  he  was  employed,  we  do 
not  know.     What  follows,  taken  along  with  the  passage 
Ezra    iv.   6-23,  shows   that   the   position   of  the   colony 
was,  in  the  interval,  one  of  great  hardship  and  depression. 
(e)  Nehemiah     arrived     in     the     twentieth     year    of 
Artaxerxes,  i.e.  B.C.  445,  entrusted  with  full  powers  as 
governor,    which    only    added    to    the    enmity    of    the 
Samaritans  (Neh.    ii.     I -10).      Unmoved    by  opposition 
he  took  in  hand   the   repair  of  the  walls  (Neh.    ii.   1 1  - 
iii.  32),  keeping  his  builders  under  arms  to  repel  hostile 
attacks   of  Ammonites   and  Arabians  (Neh.   iv.),  at  the 
same  time  attending  to  the  wants  of  the  poor  (Neh.  v.) 
In  fifty-two  days,  notwithstanding  plots  of  his  adversaries 
and  unfaithfulness  within  Jerusalem  itself,  the  walls  were 
completed,  and  faithful  men  appointed  to  keep  the  gates 
(Neh.    vi.    i-vii.    4).      And    only    when    all   this   is   ac- 
complished,   in    the    beginning    of   the    seventh     month 
(Neh.    vii.  73),  Ezra  again   appears.      This  was  on  the 
memorable  occasion  when  the  Law  was  publicly  read  at 
a  great  assembly  of  the  people  (Neh.   viii.   1-12);   then 
followed  a  great  observance  of  the  Eeast  of  Tabernacles, 
at  which  there  was  a  similar  daily  reading  of  the  Law 
(viii.    13-18).      The  people    separated    themselves   from 
strangers    (ix.    1-3),   and   bound   themselves   by    solemn 
covenant    to    carry    out    the    requirements    of  the    Law 
(ix.    4-x.    39)  ;    measures    were    taken    for    bringing    a 
sufficient  population  to  reside  within   the  city  (xi.)  ;  and 
the   completed  walls  were  dedicated   by  a  solemn  pro- 
cession (xii. )     Nehemiah   was  recalled  to   the  court   of 
Persia  in  the  thirty- second  year  of  Artaxerxes,  B.C.  432 
(Neh.    xiii.    6).      We    are    not  told    how   long   he   was 
absent,  but  on  his  return  he  found  that  the  old  abuses 
had   crept   in,   the    high   priest   being   a  glaring   culprit 
(Neh.    xiii.    7,    28)  ;    and    the    book    concludes    rather 
abruptly    with    the    energetic    measures     taken     by    the 
governor  against  the  offenders  (xiii.  7-31). 

5.  The  details  furnished  in  these  books,  fragmentary 
as  they  are,  have  the  greatest  significance  in  the  history 
of  the  Jewish  people.      Two  outstanding  facts  are  here 


THE  BOOK'S  OF  EZRA   AND  NEHEMIAH    159 

seen  which  are  characteristic  of  the  period,  and  influenced 
the  succeeding  history  down  to  the  time  of  the  New 
Testament.  The  one  is  the  position  which  the  written 
Word  from  this  time  takes  in  the  religious  life  of 
the  people  (see  §  13), —  a  position  which  it  continued 
to  hold,  though  it  gradually  degenerated  into  an 
inordinate  regard  for  the  letter,  and  a  punctilious 
cultivation  of  the  study  of  the  Law.  The  other  is  the 
opposition  of  the  Samaritans,  which  developed  into  a 
rival  worship,  and  a  religious  animosity  which  is  a 
characteristic  of  the  New  Testament  time.  These  two 
facts  are  deserving  of  very  careful  attention  in  connection 
with  the  much-disputed  question  as  to  the  date  of  certain 
parts  of  the  Pentateuch  (§  33,  3).  It  is  well  known  that 
the  Samaritans  have  the  same  Pentateuch  as  the  Jews 
(§41,  1)  ;  and  it  must,  therefore,  have  been  a  completed 
work  at  the  time  of  the  schism.  If,  however,  a  great 
part  of  it  was  for  the  first  time  composed  by  Ezra  or 
about  his  time,  as  many  modern  critics  assert,  it  is  very 
difficult  to  understand  how  the  Samaritans  should  have, 
just  at  this  time,  concurrently  with  the  Jews,  conceived 
such  a  high  regard  for  "Scripture";  and  still  more 
difficult  to  understand  how  the  Samaritans,  with  their 
bitter  opposition  to  the  Jews,  should  have  accepted  a 
code  newly  elaborated  by  the  latter.  It  is  much  more 
reasonable  to  conclude  that  the  reverence  for  the  written 
law,  and  the  acceptance  of  it  on  the  part  of  both,  indicate 
a  common  belief  in  the  high  antiquity  and  authority  of 
the  book. 


160    OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE    BOOKS    OF    CHRONICLES 

§92.  These  two  books  (like  those  of  Samuel  and 
Kings)  form  one  whole.  The  name  given  to 
them  in  our  version  was  suggested  by  Jerome,  who 
described  them  as  "a  chronicle  of  the  whole  of 
sacred  history."  It  is  more  appropriate  than  the 
title  given  by  the  LXX.,  viz.  Paraleipomena,  or 
"things  passed  over,"  which  was  bestowed  with 
the  idea  that  they  were  intended  to  supplement 
preceding  historical  books.  A  very  slight  examina- 
tion of  their  contents  shows  that,  though  later  than 
the  books  of  Kings,  they  form  an  independent 
work,  with  a  plan  and  purpose  of  their  own. 

1.  The  Hebrew  name  given  to  these  books  is 
"Acts"  or  "Affairs  of  the  Times,"  i.e.  annals  or 
journals.  This  was  the  name  given  to  the  official 
records  kept  at  the  courts  of  the  kings  (§  48,  3),  and 
seems  to  have  been  applied  to  formal  books  of  history 
based  upon  or  made  up  of  materials  drawn  from  such 
sources  (see  2  Chron.  xvi.  1 1  ;  xxv.  26  ;  xxviii.  26  ; 
xxxii.  32  ;  also  2  Chron.  xxvii.  7  ;  xxxv.  27  ;  xxxvi.  8). 
The  work,  or  works,  referred  to  in  these  passages  can 
scarcely  have  been  the  records  of  the  individual  reigns  to 
which  the  writer  of  the  books  of  Kings  referred,  though 
the  similarity  of  language  would  imply  that  the  same 
primary  documents  lie  at  the  foundation  of  both  Kings  and 
Chronicles.  That  the  book  of  Chronicles  was  not  intended 
to  be  a  supplementary  work  is  shown  by  the  repetition 


THE  BOOKS  OF  CHRONICLES  161 

of  many  things  which  had  been  narrated  in  Kings,  whole 
sections  agreeing  very  closely  in  actual  words  (§  32,  4). 

2.  The  difference  in  literary  plan  of  these  books  as 
compared  with  the  earlier  historical  books  is  apparent  at  a 
glance.  In  the  series  from  Genesis  to  Second  Kings  each 
book  takes  up  the  history  where  the  preceding  drops  it, 
so  that  in  the  whole  series  of  separate  books  we  have 
one  continuous  history  from  the  Creation  to  the  Baby- 
lonian Captivity.  Chronicles,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
complete  in  itself,  and  it  covers  the  whole  history  from 
Adam  down  to  the  Restoration  from  Captivity  and  even 
much  later.  To  do  this  in  the  compass  of  one  book  (or 
a  book  in  two  divisions)  the  writer  had  to  adopt  a  very 
different  style,  which,  as  we  shall  see,  is  also  character- 
istic of  '.he  point  of  view  from  which  he  wrote  and  the 
purpose  he  had  before  him. 

3.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  books  are  of  late 
authorship.  Not  only  is  this  apparent  in  the  language, 
but  it  is  proved  by  the  point  to  which  the  history  is  brought 
down,  and  the  still  later  date  to  which  the  genealogies  are 
carried.  The  descendants  of  David  are  traced  to  the  sixth 
generation  after  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  19  ff.),  which 
would  bring  the  composition  down  to  the  close  of  the  Per- 
sian or  the  beginning  of  the  Greek  period  (§51,  1).  It 
is  believed  by  many  that  the  compiler  of  the  Chronicles 
had  an  active  share  in  arranging  the  materials  which  now 
form  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (see  §91,2  end). 

4.  This  lateness  of  date,  and  the  situation  of  the  writer 
which  it  implies,  throw  light  upon  the  purpose  he  had 
in  view  and  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  he  has  worked 
it  out.  National  independence  was  gone,  and  the  Jewish 
people  were  under  the  sway  of  a  heathen  power.  Two 
national  possessions  however  remained — the  religion  and 
the  descendants  of  the  royal  house  of  David.  Looking  back 
over  the  past,  the  writer  perceived  that  the  prosperity  of 
his  people  had  risen  or  fallen  with  their  faithfulness  or 
unfaithfulness  to  the  requirements  of  their  religion  ;  and 
the  only  hope  he  could  see  for  the  future  lay  in  adherence 
to  the  old  faith  and  the  observance  of  its  forms.      It  was  a 


162     OLD   TESTAMENT  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

time  at  which  attention  was  being  more  and  more  given  to 
the  ceremonies  of  worship.  Hence  we  perceive  the  fit- 
ness of  the  two  great  characteristics  of  this  book,  (a) 
The  history  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  kingdom 
of  Judah,  the  northern  kingdom  being  alluded  to  only  when 
its  affairs  touch  those  of  the  southern,  while  the  whole 
Davidic  line  passes  in  review.  In  that  line  lay  the 
promise  of  the  future,  as  it  was  the  chosen  line  in  the 
past.  (5)  Not  only  does  the  writer,  in  common  with 
other  Biblical  historians,  treat  the  history  from  a  religious 
point  of  view,  but  he  is  peculiar  in  the  stress  he  lays  on 
religious  observances.  He  has  more  to  say  of  the  temple 
and  its  ritual  than  of  the  wars  of  the  kings  ;  and  he 
dwells  with  special  emphasis  on  the  reigns  of  kings  who 
had  been  distinguished  for  zeal  in  religion  and  reforma- 
tion in  worship.  Thus  he  narrates  at  length  the  removal 
of  the  ark  to  Jerusalem  in  David's  reign  (i  Chron.  xv. , 
xvi. ),  and  dwells  upon  the  steps  which  that  king  took  for 
the  building  of  the  temple  ( I  Chron.  xvii. ,  xxviii. ,  xxix. )  It 
is  the  same  in  the  succeeding  reigns,  when  he  mentions 
the  steps  taken  by  Jehoshaphat  for  instructing  the  people 
in  the  Law  (2  Chron.  xvii.  7-9),  and  gives  full  details  of  the 
reforming  work  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxix. -xxxii.),  and  the 
more  thorough  reformation  in  the  time  of  Josiah  (2  Chron. 
xxxiv. ,  xxxv.)  This  predilection  gives  a  priestly  colour- 
ing to  the  book,  so  that  we  have  genealogical  and  family 
lists  in  which  the  priests  and  Levites  figure  largely  (see 
I  Chron.  vi.,  xxiii.-xxvi.),  although  the  activity  of  prophets 
is  not  overlooked  (see  2  Chron.  x.  15  ;  xi.  2;  xii.  5  ; 
xv.  1  ;  xvi.  7).  By  the  time  the  author  wrote,  a  pre- 
vailing priestly  tendency  had  set  in,  and  he  looked  at  the 
past  history  in  that  light.  Nevertheless  we  must  not 
conclude  that  he  drew  upon  his  imagination  for  facts 
which  are  not  recorded  elsewhere  ;  although  it  is  not 
difficult  to  see  that,  from  the  point  at  which  he  stood, 
the  course  might  tend,  as  it  did  tend,  towards  the  dull 
period  of  legalism  and  formalism  which  preceded  the 
freedom  and  spirituality  of  the  Gospel. 


Printed  by  R.  &  R.  Clark,  Edinburgh. 


1012  01146  1540 
Date  Due 


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PRINTED 

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